Monitoring Inequalities in the Health Workforce: The Case Study of Brazil 1991–2005

Introduction: Both the quantity and the distribution of health workers in a country are fundamental for assuring equitable access to health services. Using the case of Brazil, we measure changes in inequalities in the distribution of the health workforce and account for the sources of inequalities at sub-national level to identify whether policies have been effectiv

Late-stage diagnosis of HIV infection in Brazilian children: evidence from two national cohort studies

This study analyzed data from two consecutive retrospective cohort samples (1983 to 1998 and 1999 to 2002) of Brazilian children with AIDS (N = 1,758) through mother-to-child-transmission. Late-stage diagnosis (CDC category C) was investigated in relation to the following variables: year of birth, year of HIV diagnosis, and time periods related to changes in government treatment guidelines. Late-stage diagnosis occurred in 731 (41.6%) of cases and was more prevalent in infants under 12 months of age. The rate of late-stage diagnosis decreased from 48% to 36% between the two periods studied. We also observed a reduction in the proportion of late-stage diagnoses and the time lapse between HIV diagnosis and ART initiation. A significant association was found between timely diagnosis and having been born in recent years (OR = 0.62; p = 0.009) and year of HIV diagnosis (OR = 0.72; p = 0.002/OR = 0.62; p < 0.001). Infants under the age of 12 months were more likely to be diagnosed at a late stage than older children (OR = 1.70; p = 0.004). Despite advances, there is a need to improve the effectiveness of policies and programs focused on improving early diagnosis and management of HIV/AIDS

Mental Disorders in Megacities: Findings from the São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey, Brazil

Background: World population growth is projected to be concentrated in megacities, with increases in social inequality and urbanization-associated stress. São Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA) provides a forewarning of the burden of mental disorders in urban settings in developing world. The aim of this study is to estimate prevalence, severity, and treatment of recently active DSM-IV mental disorders. We examined socio-demographic correlates, aspects of urban living such as internal migration, exposure to violence, and neighborhood-level social deprivation with 12-month mental disorders. Methods and Results: A representative cross-sectional household sample of 5,037 adults was interviewed face-to-face using the WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), to generate diagnoses of DSM-IV mental disorders within 12 months of interview, disorder severity, and treatment. Administrative data on neighborhood social deprivation were gathered. Multiple logistic regression was used to evaluate individual and contextual correlates of disorders, severity, and treatment. Around thirty percent of respondents reported a 12-month disorder, with an even distribution across severity levels. Anxiety disorders were the most common disorders (affecting 19.9%), followed by mood (11%), impulse-control (4.3%), and substance use (3.6%) disorders. Exposure to crime was associated with all four types of disorder. Migrants had low prevalence of all four types compared to stable residents. High urbanicity was associated with impulse-control disorders and high social deprivation with substance use disorders. Vulnerable subgroups were observed: women and migrant men living in most deprived areas. Only one-third of serious cases had received treatment in the previous year. Discussion: Adults living in São Paulo megacity had prevalence of mental disorders at greater levels than similar surveys conducted in other areas of the world. Integration of mental health promotion and care into the rapidly expanding Brazilian primary health system should be strengthened. This strategy might become a model for poorly resourced and highly populated developing countries

Demand-side financing for maternal and newborn health: what do we know about factors that affect implementation of cash transfers and voucher programmes?

BackgroundDemand-side financing (DSF) interventions, including cash transfers and vouchers, have been introduced to promote maternal and newborn health in a range of low- and middle-income countries. These interventions vary in design but have typically been used to increase health service utilisation by offsetting some financial costs for users, or increasing household income and incentivising 'healthy behaviours'. This article documents experiences and implementation factors associated with use of DSF in maternal and newborn health.MethodsA secondary analysis (using an adapted Supporting the Use of Research Evidence framework - SURE) was performed on studies that had previously been identified in a systematic review of evidence on DSF interventions in maternal and newborn health.ResultsThe article draws on findings from 49 quantitative and 49 qualitative studies. The studies give insights on difficulties with exclusion of migrants, young and multiparous women, with demands for informal fees at facilities, and with challenges maintaining quality of care under increasing demand. Schemes experienced difficulties if communities faced long distances to reach participating facilities and poor access to transport, and where there was inadequate health infrastructure and human resources, shortages of medicines and problems with corruption. Studies that documented improved care-seeking indicated the importance of adequate programme scope (in terms of programme eligibility, size and timing of payments and voucher entitlements) to address the issue of concern, concurrent investments in supply-side capacity to sustain and/or improve quality of care, and awareness generation using community-based workers, leaders and women's groups. ConclusionsEvaluations spanning more than 15 years of implementation of DSF programmes reveal a complex picture of experiences that reflect the importance of financial and other social, geographical and health systems factors as barriers to accessing care. Careful design of DSF programmes as part of broader maternal and newborn health initiatives would need to take into account these barriers, the behaviours of staff and the quality of care in health facilities. Research is still needed on the policy context for DSF schemes in order to understand how they become sustainable and where they fit, or do not fit, with plans to achieve equitable universal health coverage

Effect of the Brazilian conditional cash transfer and primary health care programs on the new case detection rate of leprosy.

BACKGROUND: Social determinants can affect the transmission of leprosy and its progression to disease. Not much is known about the effectiveness of welfare and primary health care policies on the reduction of leprosy occurrence. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of the Brazilian cash transfer (Bolsa Família Program-BFP) and primary health care (Family Health Program-FHP) programs on new case detection rate of leprosy. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We conducted the study with a mixed ecological design, a combination of an ecological multiple-group and time-trend design in the period 2004-2011 with the Brazilian municipalities as unit of analysis. The main independent variables were the BFP and FHP coverage at the municipal level and the outcome was new case detection rate of leprosy. Leprosy new cases, BFP and FHP coverage, population and other relevant socio-demographic covariates were obtained from national databases. We used fixed-effects negative binomial models for panel data adjusted for relevant socio-demographic covariates. A total of 1,358 municipalities were included in the analysis. In the studied period, while the municipal coverage of BFP and FHP increased, the new case detection rate of leprosy decreased. Leprosy new case detection rate was significantly reduced in municipalities with consolidated BFP coverage (Risk Ratio 0.79; 95% CI  =0.74-0.83) and significantly increased in municipalities with FHP coverage in the medium (72-95%) (Risk Ratio 1.05; 95% CI  =1.02-1.09) and higher coverage tertiles (>95%) (Risk Ratio 1.12; 95% CI  =1.08-1.17). CONCLUSIONS: At the same time the Family Health Program had been effective in increasing the new case detection rate of leprosy in Brazil, the Bolsa Família Program was associated with a reduction of the new case detection rate of leprosy that we propose reflects a reduction in leprosy incidence

Significado de viver saudável em uma comunidade socialmente vulnerável no Sul do Brasil

OBJETIVO: Compreender o significado de viver saudável para usuários, profissionais e gestores de uma equipe Estratégia Saúde da Família (ESF). MÉTODOS: Pesquisa de natureza qualitativa, baseada na grounded theory. Para a coleta de dados foram realizadas entrevistas com 25 participantes, dentre eles usuários, profissionais e gestores de uma equipe ESF, no período entre março e dezembro de 2009. RESULTADOS: A coleta e a análise dos dados, conduzida de forma sistemática e comparativa, evidenciaram que o viver saudável pode ser caracterizado como um processo auto-organizador, intermediado pela atuação dos profissionais da equipe ESF, especialmente, pelo agente comunitário de saúde, por meio da criação de vínculos de confiança e estímulo às interações e associações comunitárias. CONCLUSÃO: Concluiu-se que o viver saudável é um fenômeno singular, complexo, interativo, associativo, político e social, conjugado pelo envolvimento ativo e participativo dos usuários e pelo engajamento efetivo e socialmente responsável dos profissionais, gestores e autoridades políticas instituídas.OBJETIVO: Comprender el significado de vivir saludable para usuarios, profesionales y gestores de un equipo de la Estrategia Salud de la Familia (ESF). MÉTODOS: Se trata de una investigación de naturaleza cualitativa, basada en la grounded theory. Para la recolección de los datos se realizaron entrevistas a 25 participantes, entre ellos usuarios, profesionales y gestores de un equipo ESF, en el período comprendido entre marzo y diciembre de 2009. RESULTADOS: La recolección y análisis de los datos, conducida de forma sistemática y comparativa, evidenciaron que el vivir saludable deve ser caracterizado como un proceso auto-organizador, intermediado por la actuación de los profesionales del equipo ESF, especialmente, por el agente comunitario de salud, por medio de la creación de vínculos de confianza y estímulo a las interacciones y asociaciones comunitarias. CONCLUSIÓN: El vivir saludable es un fenómeno singular, complejo, interactivo, asociativo, político y social, conjugado por el involucramiento activo y participativo de los usuarios y por el compromiso efectivo y socialmente responsable de los profesionales, gestores y autoridades políticas instituidas.OBJECTIVE: To understand the significance of healthy living for users, professionals and managers of the Family Health Strategy (FHS) team. METHODS: Research of a qualitative nature, based on grounded theory. For data collection, interviews were conducted with 25 participants, including users, professionals and managers of a FHS team, during the period between March and December, 2009. RESULTS: The collection and analysis of data was conducted in a systematic and comparative manner, demonstrating that healthy living can be characterized as a self-organizing process, mediated by the action of the FHS team professionals, especially by the community health agent, through creation of bonds of trust and stimulation of interactions and community associations. CONCLUSION: We concluded that healthy living is a singular phenomenon, complex, interactive, associative, political and social, coupled with the active involvement and participation of the users and by the engagement of effective and socially responsible professionals, managers and established political authorities