School Resource Officers and the School-to-Prison Pipeline: A Mixed Methods Application of the Behavior of Law in Schools

The implementation of school resource officer programs has been a popular response to school-based violence in the United States. Parents, school officials, and policy makers believe that police presence makes students and staff feel safer on campus, deters school-based crime and violence, and creates positive relationships between youth and the police. However, there is a growing concern that school resource officers hypercriminalize trivial student misbehavior, contribute to a culture of youth punishment and control, and are instrumental in facilitating a link between schools and the juvenile justice system. Despite the rapid rate at which school resource officer programs have expanded over the last two decades and the significant amount of federal and state funds that have been allocated for their implementation, very little is known about how school resource officers operate in schools across the United States. The current work aims to gain a better understanding of how school resource officers spend their time, the extent to which school characteristics explain the variation in their behaviors, the factors influencing their involvement in school discipline, and how their behavior is shaped by the presence and availability of schools’ informal social control measures. Since school resource officers are likely to remain a permanent fixture in schools across the country, it is necessary to better understand their role within the school setting. Utilizing data from the Department of Education’s School Survey on Crime and Safety (2015), supplemented with qualitative interviews from a sample (n=20) of school resource officers, the current research aims to fill this gap in the literature by applying Donald Black’s (1976) Behavior of Law as a theoretical framework. Some findings were consistent with the notion that school resource officers engage in behaviors that may contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline, but other findings suggested that many school resource officers are willing to seek alternative social control measures in an effort to keep students out of the juvenile justice system. This highlights the importance of selecting officers for this assignment who are oriented toward working with youth and are committed to using alternatives to formal juvenile justice sanctions, while only referring students to the juvenile justice system as a last resort. Additionally, these findings suggest that although schools are considered to be a microcosm of society, the law oftentimes manifests itself differently within schools relative to the rest of society due to the intimate nature of the school setting. Further, it is important that police departments and school districts maintain a shared understanding of the roles of school resource officers and that schools should not be policed in the same way in which streets are policed. Finally, school resource officers should be expected to take advantage of the readily available alternative social control measures that are unique to the school setting so as not to perpetuate the school-to-prison pipeline

Master of Science

thesisRecent research suggests that basic cognitive skills are plastic in nature and can be significantly impacted by one's environment. Specifically, it has been hypothesized that formal activity participation can both directly and indirectly influence executive function development and related developmental outcomes. In the current study, we examined associations between parents' reports of their children's activity participation, children's feelings of social belonging and support, executive function skills, and depressive symptoms. The children were recruited through partnerships with two elementary schools (N = 151; 8-12 years of age). The statistical analyses included correlations, hierarchical regression, and a series of mediation path analyses. The final models statistically demonstrated a significant relationship between children's participation in activities and depressive symptoms through processes of social belonging and support and executive function. Children who participated in a greater number of activities reported a greater sense of social belonging and support from peers, demonstrated better executive function skills (working memory only), and reported fewer depressive symptoms. Children from families who reported greater annual incomes reportedly participated in a greater number and wider breadth of activities. Our findings add to the existing literature by showing that common, everyday childhood activities, not just those specifically designed to enhance development, are beneficially related to positive aspects of development

CU4Health: Clemson University\u27s Employee Wellness Program

The nurse-managed Joseph F. Sullivan Center of Clemson University operates an incentive based employee wellness program called CU4Health. In order to determine the effectiveness of the program, researchers from Clemson University’s School of Nursing analyzed the return on investment from the program, defined by the improvement of participants’ health, which was scored by eight biomarkers. This research displays evidence that participation in Clemson University’s employee wellness program is associated with overall healthier biomarkers, therefore supporting the implementation and continuance of the CU4Health

Retail Redlining: Are gasoline prices higher in poor and minority neighborhoods?

Higher retail prices are frequently cited as a cost of living in poor, minority neighborhoods. However, the empirical evidence, which primarilycomes from the grocery gap literature on food prices, has been mixed. This study uses new data on retail gasoline prices in three major U.S.cities to provide evidence on the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and consumer prices. We find that gasoline prices do not varygreatly with neighborhood racial composition, but that prices are higher in poor neighborhoods. For a 10 percentage point increase in the percentof families with incomes below the poverty line relative to families with incomes between 1 and 2 times the poverty line, retail gasoline prices are estimated to increase by an average of 0.70 percent. This differential is reduced to 0.22 percent once we add controls for costs, competition, and demand. Finally, we provide evidence that the remaining, small, price differential for poor neighborhoods is likely the result of traditional price discrimination in response to less competition and/or more inelastic demand in these locations.

Nutritional influences on arsenic toxicity in Bangladeshi men and women: interplay between one-carbon metabolism, arsenic, and epigenetics

Background: In Bangladesh, more than 57 million individuals are exposed to arsenic-contaminated drinking water at concentrations that exceed the World Health Organization guideline for safe drinking water, which is 10 μg/L. Arsenic is a human carcinogen, which has also been associated with numerous non cancer outcomes, including cardiovascular disease. For many arsenic-related health outcomes, susceptibility differs by sex, with some outcomes preferentially afflicting males and others females. Although reducing exposure to arsenic-contaminated drinking water is the primary strategy for preventing arsenic toxicity, cancer risks remain elevated decades after arsenic exposure has been reduced. Therefore, public health approaches which complement arsenic remediation efforts are needed. One potential set of strategies includes nutritional interventions. Deficiencies in one-carbon metabolism (OCM nutrients can cause hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcys), which has been associated with adverse health outcomes, including cancers and cardiovascular disease. In Bangladesh, the prevalence of HHcys is quite high and differs by sex (63% among men, 26% among women). Nutrients involved in the OCM pathway may also protect against arsenic toxicity. Two potential mechanisms include: 1) by enhancing arsenic metabolism and 2) by preventing/reversing arsenic-induced epigenetic dysregulation. Arsenic metabolism facilitates urinary arsenic elimination and depends on two sequential S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)-dependent methylation steps, which yield the mono- and dimethyl arsenical species (MMA and DMA, respectively and S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), a potent inhibitor of most methyltransferases. SAM is synthesized via OCM, a pathway with many nutritional influences, including folate and cobalamin. There is substantial evidence from experimental studies that the OCM pathway is important for facilitating arsenic metabolism and elimination. However, the relationships between SAM, SAH, and arsenic methylation may be particularly complex in populations exposed continuously to arsenic, because 1) the arsenic metabolites compete for methylation, since each methylation step is catalyzed by the arsenic (+3) methyltransferase and requires a methyl group from SAM, and 2) folate and cobalamin nutritional status may vary between individuals. Although the mechanisms mediating arsenic toxicity remain largely unclear and are likely multifactorial, there is increasing evidence that arsenic induces epigenetic dysregulation, including alterations in both DNA methylation and posttranslational histone modifications (PTHMs), and these effects may differ by sex. Arsenic has also been shown to alter gene expression in a sex dependent manner. However, the sex-specific effects of arsenic on PTHMs and gene expression have not been confirmed in a large epidemiological study. Since many of the enzymes involved in epigenetic regulation, including DNA methyltransferases and lysine histone methyltransferases, depend on SAM, epigenetic modifications are also influenced by OCM. Previous studies have demonstrated that nutritional methyl donors involved in the OCM pathway buffer against/modify toxicant-induced alterations in DNA methylation. This may also be true for arsenic-induced alterations in PTHMs. However, the relationships between OCM indices and PTHMs have not been characterized in arsenic-exposed populations. Objectives: We had five main objectives: 1) to examine the relationships between SAM, SAH, and arsenic methylation capacity, and potential effect modification by folate and cobalamin nutritional status; 2) to characterize a specific cleavage product of histone H3, which we identified in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in our early analyses of PTHMs; 3) to evaluate the effects of arsenic exposure and arsenic removal on three candidate PTHMs (di- and tri-methylation at lysine 36 of histone H3 (H3K36me2 and H3K36me3, respectively) and di-methylation at lysine 79 of histone H3 (H3K79me2)), which were selected because they are dysregulated in cancers and are altered by arsenic and/or nutritional methyl donors in vitro; 4) to examine associations between arsenic exposure and gene-specific DNA methylation and mRNA expression, particularly for genes involved in pathways implicated in arsenic toxicity; and 5) to characterize the relationships between OCM indices and our three candidate PTHMs, and the effect of folic acid (FA) supplementation on these same PTHMs. For objectives 3-5, we also examined potential differences by sex. Methods: To address these objectives, we used data from three epidemiological studies of arsenic-exposed Bangladeshi adults: 1) the Folate and Oxidative Stress (FOX) study, a cross-sectional study of healthy individuals; 2) the Folic Acid and Creatine Trial (FACT), a randomized placebo-controlled trial (duration 24 weeks) in which healthy participants received an arsenic-removal water filter at baseline and were also randomized to one of five nutrition intervention arms: placebo, 400 μg FA/day (FA400), 800 μg FA/day (FA800), 3 g creatine/day (Creatine), and Creatine + FA400; and 3) the Bangladesh Vitamin E and Selenium Trial (BEST), a randomized placebo controlled trial (duration 6 years) in which individuals with arsenicosis were randomized to one of four nutrition intervention arms: placebo, vitamin E (alphatocopheral, 100 mg/day), selenium (L-selenomethionine, 200 μg/day), or a combination of vitamin E and selenium. In Chapter 3, we examined associations between blood SAM and SAH and the proportion (%) of each arsenic metabolite, measured in blood and urine, among FOX participants. We further examined if these associations differed within strata of folate and/or cobalamin nutritional status. In Chapter 4, we characterized a specific cleavage product of histone H3, which we identified in human PBMCs from a subset of FACT participants (n = 32). We also determined the prevalence of H3 cleavage in these samples and the impact of H3 cleavage on the measurement of downstream PTHMs. In Chapter 5, we presented sex-specific associations between pre-intervention measures of blood arsenic and creatinine-adjusted urinary arsenic (uAsCr) and PTHMs, measured in PBMCs collected from FACT participants (n = 317). We also evaluated whether PTHMs were stable for the 12 week duration after FACT participants received arsenic-removal water filters (n = 60 from placebo group). In Chapter 6, we presented associations between pre-intervention uAsCr and gene-specific DNA methylation (whole blood, n = 400) and mRNA expression (PBMCs, n = 1799) for 47 candidate genes involved in arsenic metabolism, OCM, epigenetic regulation, DNA repair, or tumor suppression/oncogenesis, using baseline-collected samples from BEST participants. We also evaluated these associations separately by sex. In Chapter 6, we examined sex-specific associations between baseline circulating concentrations of OCM indices, including folate, cobalamin, choline, betaine, and homocysteine, and PTHMs measured in PBMCs collected from FACT participants (n = 324). We also evaluated whether FA400 (n = 106), compared with placebo (n = 60), for a duration of 12 weeks increased global levels of PTHMs. Results: We observed that folate and cobalamin nutritional status significantly modified associations between SAM and the % arsenic metabolites, as hypothesized (Chapter 3). Among folate and cobalamin deficient individuals, SAM was positively associated with the %MMA, and negatively associated with the %DMA, in blood. In Chapter 4, we determined that H3 cleavage was evident in one third of the FACT PBMC samples examined. We further demonstrated that H3 cleavage impacts the measurement of certain PTHMs. In Chapter 5, we reported that biomarkers of arsenic exposure were associated with H3K36me2 in a sex-dependent manner. In particular, uAsCr was positively associated with H3K36me2 among men, but not women. Furthermore, the use of arsenic-removal water filters was associated with significant reductions in H3K36me2 over a 12 week period, but this did not differ by sex. We also observed that uAsCr was associated with the methylation and expression of several genes involved in OCM, epigenetic regulation, DNA repair, and tumor suppression, and many of these associations differed by sex (Chapter 6). The associations between several OCM indices and PTHMs were also sex-dependent (Chapter 7). Specifically, choline was positively associated with H3K36me2 among men only, while cobalamin was positively associated with H3K79me2 among women only. However, FA400 for 12 weeks did not alter global levels of the PTHMs examined. Conclusions: Given that cancer risks remain elevated decades after arsenic exposure has ceased, public health interventions which complement arsenic remediation efforts are needed. Nutritional interventions may be one promising approach. Previous studies have observed that a higher %MMA, and a lower DMA, in urine is associated with an increased risk of developing adverse health outcomes. Our finding that SAM was positively associated with %MMA, and negatively associated with %DMA, among individuals deficient for folate and cobalamin contributes additional evidence that nutritional status may explain some of the inter-individual differences in arsenic methylation capacity and, consequently, in susceptibility to arsenic toxicity. Our observation that arsenic exposure was positively associated with global levels of H3K36me2 among men, but not women, and that arsenic was associated with gene specific DNA methylation and mRNA expression in a sex-dependent manner, adds to a growing literature that arsenic induces epigenetic dysregulation differentially by sex. Furthermore, these findings suggest that this may have functional consequences, such as alterations in mRNA expression, including for genes involved in pathways implicated in arsenic toxicity. While it is tempting to speculate that this may explain some of the sex differences in susceptibility to arsenic toxicity, the clinical implications of our findings will require additional study. We also provided the first evidence from an arsenic exposed population that choline and cobalamin are associated with PTHMs(H3K36me2 and H3K79me2, respectively) in a sex-dependent manner, and that 12 weeks’ supplementation with FA, at a dose based on the recommended dietary allowance for folate, does not significantly alter global levels of H3K36me2, H3K36me3, or H3K79me2 in human PBMCs. Previous studies have shown that nutrients in the OCM pathway protect against toxicant induced alterations in DNA methylation. Our findings suggest that some OCM nutrients, particularly choline and cobalamin, may also influence PTHMs in human PBMCs. These findings lay the groundwork for future studies which further examine whether these nutrients can protect against or modify arsenic induced alterations in PTHMs

The Lives and Lessons of Richmond Nonagerians and Centenarians

Capstone presentation for the University of Richmond SSIR (Sophomore Scholars in Residence) Program.https://scholarship.richmond.edu/ssir-presentations-2017/1005/thumbnail.jp

Review of Indigenous Offender Health

This review provides an overview of health issues facing the Indigenous offender population, including some of the social and historical factors relevant to Indigenous health and incarceration. In doing so, it is important to first understand how Indigenous people conceptualise health. Health as it is understood in western society is a fairly discrete category, which differs from the traditional Indigenous perspective of health as holistic [1]. This is made explicit in the 1989 National Aboriginal health strategy that states \u27health to Aboriginal peoples is a matter of determining all aspects of their life, including control over their physical environment, of dignity, of community self-esteem, and of justice\u27 ([1] p.ix). For this reason, considering health in a justice context is of particular relevance to Indigenous people, as the restrictions imposed upon offenders represent a threat to individual and community health. Some of the sources referred to in this review originally used only the term Aboriginal, even though it is evident that in many, if not most, cases the reporting did not differentiate between Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Islander people. Population figures reveal that substantial numbers of Torres Strait Islanders or people of both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent live in all jurisdictions, except the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). Therefore, the term Indigenous has been used throughout this review to refer to both the Aboriginal and the Torres Strait Islander populations. This review is largely structured under key topic headings, such as chronic disease or the social determinants of health. Much of the general information about offenders refers to both men and women, and, in some instances, to some juveniles, but specific sections are also devoted to women and juveniles

To What Extent Do Laws throughout England and Wales Protect Women against Sex Trafficking?

Despite somewhat extensive legislation that reduce the number of offences connected to human trafficking for sexual exploitation throughout England and Wales, all circumstances are not fully elaborated upon. Sex trafficking, according to the Shared Hope International Group, is when ‘someone uses force, fraud or compulsion to cause a profitable sex act with an adult which includes prostitution, pornography and sexual performance done in exchange for items of value, all including, money, drugs, shelter, food and clothes.’ Whilst undertaking this research report to consider the chosen topic, sex trafficking is closely allied to human trafficking and slavery, as they link together under the same legislation guidelines. We believe that it is best to address this matter in the opening of our report as sex trafficking has only recently converted into an issue within England and Wales as it was previously perceived solely as human trafficking and slavery. Human trafficking is the action of illegally transporting people from one country or area to another and this action is usually forced. Section 1 of the Modern Slavery Act then defines slavery to be ‘If a person requires another to perform forced or compulsory labour and the circumstances are such that the person knows or ought to know that the other person is being required to perform forced or compulsory labour’