New Insights into the Role of Macrophages in Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Fatty Liver Disease: Modulation by Endogenous Omega-3 Fatty Acid-Derived Lipid Mediators

Obesity is causally linked to a chronic state of “low-grade” inflammation in adipose tissue. Prolonged, unremitting inflammation in this tissue has a direct impact on insulin-sensitive tissues (i.e., liver) and its timely resolution is a critical step toward reducing the prevalence of related co-morbidities such as insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. This article describes the current state-of-the-art knowledge and novel insights into the role of macrophages in adipose tissue inflammation, with special emphasis on the progressive changes in macrophage polarization observed over the course of obesity. In addition, this article extends the discussion to the contribution of Kupffer cells, the liver resident macrophages, to metabolic liver disease. Special attention is given to the modulation of macrophage responses by omega-3-PUFAs, and more importantly by resolvins, which are potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving autacoids generated from docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids. In fact, resolvins have been shown to work as endogenous “stop signals” in inflamed adipose tissue and to return this tissue to homeostasis by inducing a phenotypic switch in macrophage polarization toward a pro-resolving phenotype. Collectively, this article offers new views on the role of macrophages in metabolic disease and their modulation by endogenously generated omega-3-PUFA-derived lipid mediators

Resolution of inflammation in obesity-induced liver disease

Low-grade inflammation in adipose tissue is recognized as a critical event in the development of obesity-related co-morbidities. This chronic inflammation is powerfully augmented through the infiltration of macrophages, which together with adipocytes, perpetuate a vicious cycle of inflammatory cell recruitment and secretion of free fatty acids and deleterious adipokines that predispose to greater incidence of metabolic complications. In the last decade, many factors have been identified to contribute to mounting unresolved inflammation in obese adipose tissue. Among them, pro-inflammatory lipid mediators (i.e., leukotrienes) derived from the omega-6 polyunsaturated arachidonic acid have been shown to play a prominent role. Of note, the same lipid mediators that initially trigger the inflammatory response also signal its termination by stimulating the formation of anti-inflammatory signals. Resolvins and protectins derived from the omega-3 polyunsaturated docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids have emerged as a representative family of this novel class of autacoids with dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving properties that act as “stop-signals” of the inflammatory response. This review discusses the participation of these endogenous autacoids in the resolution of adipose tissue inflammation, with a special emphasis in the amelioration of obesity-related metabolic dysfunctions, namely insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Coordinate Functional Regulation between Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase-1 (mPGES-1) and Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor y (PPARy) in the Conversion of White-to-brown Adipocytes

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) is a ligand-activated nuclear receptor and a master regulator of adipogenesis. Microsomal prostaglandin E (PGE) synthase-1 (mPGES-1) is an inducible enzyme that couples with cyclooxygenase-2 for the biosynthesis of PGE2. In this study we demonstrate the existence of a coordinate functional interaction between PPARγ and mPGES-1 in controlling the process of pre-adipocyte differentiation in white adipose tissue (WAT). Adipocyte-specific PPARγ knock-out mice carrying an aP2 promoter-driven Cre recombinase transgene showed a blunted response to the adipogenic effects of a high fat diet. Pre-adipocytes from these knock-out mice showed loss of PPARγ and were resistant to rosiglitazone-induced WAT differentiation. In parallel, WAT from these mice showed increased expression of uncoupling protein 1, a mitochondrial enzyme that dissipates chemical energy as heat. Adipose tissue from mice lacking PPARγ also showed mPGES-1 up-regulation and increased PGE2 levels. In turn, PGE2 suppressed PPARγ expression and blocked rosiglitazone-induced pre-adipocyte differentiation toward white adipocytes while directly elevating uncoupling protein 1 expression and pre-adipocyte differentiation into mature beige/brite adipocytes. Consistently, pharmacological mPGES-1 inhibition directed pre-adipocyte differentiation toward white adipocytes while suppressing differentiation into beige/brite adipocytes. This browning effect was reproduced in knockdown experiments using a siRNA directed against mPGES-1. The effects of PGE2 on pre-adipocyte differentiation were not seen in mice lacking PPARγ in adipose tissue and were not mirrored by other eicosanoids (i.e. leukotriene B4). Taken together, these findings identify PGE2 as a key regulator of white-to-brown adipogenesis and suggest the existence of a coordinate regulation of adipogenesis between PPARγ and mPGES-1

Association of a variant in the gene encoding for ERV1/ChemR23 with reduced inflammation in visceral adipose tissue from morbidly obese individuals

Obesity comorbidities are closely associated with chronic low-grade adipose tissue inflammation. A number of SNPs associated with inflammation has been identified, underscoring the impact of genetic determinants on this process. Here, we screened SNPs in genes with pro-inflammatory (IL-1 beta, IL-6, STAT3 and JAK2), anti-inflammatory (IL-10 and SOCS3) and pro-resolving (ERV1/ChemR23) properties in 101 obese and 99 non-obese individuals. Among the SNPs analyzed, we identified that individuals carrying a C allele in the rs1878022 polymorphism of the ERV1/ChemR23 gene, which encodes for the receptor of the pro-resolving mediator RvE1, had increased ERV1/ChemR23 protein expression and reduced levels of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 in adipose tissue. Moreover, patients carrying the C allele in homozygosity had lower plasma levels of IL-6, IFN-alpha 2, IL-15, IL-1ra, IL-10, GM-CSF, G-CSF and VEGF and enhanced leukocyte responsiveness to RvE1. C-carriers also exhibited decreased TAG to HDL ratio, a surrogate marker of insulin resistance and a predictor of incident fatty liver. Finally, we confirmed in vivo that the ERV1/ChemR23 receptor regulates systemic and tissue inflammation since mice lacking ERV1/ChemR23 expression showed increased IL-6 levels in adipose tissue and peritoneal macrophages. Together, our study identified an ERV1/ChemR23 variant that protects patients with obesity from excessive inflammatory burden

Resolution of inflammation in obesity-induced liver disease

Low-grade inflammation in adipose tissue is recognized as a critical event in the development of obesity-related co-morbidities. This chronic inflammation is powerfully augmented through the infiltration of macrophages, which together with adipocytes, perpetuate a vicious cycle of inflammatory cell recruitment and secretion of free fatty acids and deleterious adipokines that predispose to greater incidence of metabolic complications. In the last decade, many factors have been identified to contribute to mounting unresolved inflammation in obese adipose tissue. Among them, pro-inflammatory lipid mediators (i.e., leukotrienes) derived from the omega-6 polyunsaturated arachidonic acid have been shown to play a prominent role. Of note, the same lipid mediators that initially trigger the inflammatory response also signal its termination by stimulating the formation of anti-inflammatory signals. Resolvins and protectins derived from the omega-3 polyunsaturated docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids have emerged as a representative family of this novel class of autacoids with dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving properties that act as 'stop-signals' of the inflammatory response. This review discusses the participation of these endogenous autacoids in the resolution of adipose tissue inflammation, with a special emphasis in the amelioration of obesity-related metabolic dysfunctions, namely insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Efectos protectores de los Ácidos grasos Omega-3 en el hígado y el tejido adiposo

[spa] Recientemente se han demostrado los efectos beneficiosos de los ácidos grasos omega-3 en un gran número de patologías. Entre los mecanismos responsables de estos efectos protectores, destacan dos nuevas familias de mediadores lipídicos bioactivos derivados de estos ácidos grasos, denominadas resolvinas y protectinas, con importantes efectos protectores y antiinflamatorios en varios modelos de daño experimental.Tanto la enfermedad hepática crónica, como la obesidad y sus complicaciones hepáticas presentan un componente inflamatorio clave para su desarrollo, de manera que los ácidos grasos omega-3 podrían tener efectos protectores en estas patologías. Los objetivos del trabajo fueron investigar los efectos de los omega-3: i-) en la inflamación hepáticaii-) sobre el tejido adiposo y las complicaciones hepáticas asociadas a la obesidad.Para nuestro primer objetivo investigamos los efectos hepatoprotectores de los omega-3 sobre el daño genotóxico y el estrés oxidativo, sobre la necroinflamación hepática inducida por CCl4 en ratón, la generación hepática de mediadores lipídicos bioactivos derivados de los omega-3 y, por último, los efectos biológicos de los mediadores lipídicos bioactivos derivados de los omega-3 en eventos clave de la necroinflamación hepática.Los resultados del primer estudio indican que la administración de una dieta enriquecida con omega-3 induce la formación hepática de 17-HDHA y PD1, que reducen el daño genotóxico y el estrés oxidativo en lo hepatocitos, así como marcadores clave de inflamación en los macrófagos.Para el segundo objetivo investigamos los efectos de los omega-3 sobre la esteatosis hepática, sus efectos sensibilizadores a la insulina y sobre la expresión de adipoquinas, el perfil de eicosanoides y derivados bioactivos de los omega-3 en el tejido adiposo, y la contribución de RvE1 y PD1 en los efectos de los omega-3 sobre la esteatosis hepática y la resistencia a la insulina.Los resultados del segundo estudio indican que los omega-3 atenúan la esteatosis hepática, mejoran la tolerancia a la insulina, inducen genes sensibilizadores a la insulina en tejido adiposo e hígado, aumentan la expresión de adiponectina, activan AMPK e incrementan la formación de resolvinas y protectinas en el tejido adiposo. Además, RvE1 y PD1 reproducen los efectos beneficiosos de sus precursores omega-3 sobre la esteatosis hepática y la resistencia a la insulina.Las conclusiones de esta tesis son las siguientes:Los omega-3 protegen a los hepatocitos del daño genotóxico y del estrés oxidativo; disminuyen la necroinflamación y la degeneración hidrópica de los hepatocitos inducidas por CCl4; inhiben la expresión de COX-2 y 5-LO, así como la formación de PGE2; atenúan la esteatosis hepática en ratones obesos; mejoran la tolerancia a la insulina e inducen genes sensibilizadores a la insulina en el tejido adiposo y el hígado de ratones obesos; inducen la expresión génica y proteica de la adiponectina, sin modular las adipoquinas proinflamatorias resistina, MCP-1, TNF- e IL-6; activan AMPK en tejido adiposo y músculo en ratones obesos; son transformados a los mediadores lipídicos bioactivos 17-HDHA y PD1 en el hígado, y 17-HDHA, RvD1 y PD1 en el tejido adiposo de ratón.El 17-HDHA protege a los hepatocitos del daño genotóxico, del estrés oxidativo, reduce la liberación de TNF- en macrófagos y activa PPAR.RvE1 reduce la esteatosis hepática y los macrófagos en el hígado y aumenta la expresión génica de adiponectina y otros factores sensibilizadores a la insulina en el tejido adiposo de ratones obesos.PD1 induce la expresión de adiponectina en explantes de tejido adiposo de ratón obeso a niveles similares a los de la rosiglitazona.Estos resultados indican que los ácidos grasos omega-3 ejercen efectos protectores en la inflamación hepática y las complicaciones asociadas a la obesidad. Estos efectos beneficiosos están mediados, en parte, por la síntesis de resolvinas y protectinas.[eng] Recently, omega-3 PUFA beneficial effects have been well-established in a number of pathologies. Among the mechanisms responsible for those protective effects, two novel families of bioactive lipid mediators termed resolvins and protectins, are thought to play a key role.Inflammation is a key factor for chronic liver disease, as well as obesity and obesity-induced alterations development. Thus, omega-3 PUFA might display important protective actions on these pathologies. The aim of the current study was to investigate omega-3 PUFA effects on: i-) hepatic inflammation.ii-) adipose tissue and obesity-induced alterations.First, we examined hepatoprotective actions of omega-3 PUFA on genotoxic damage and oxidative stress, CCl4-induced hepatic necroinflammation in mice, hepatic generation of omega-3 PUFA-derived bioactive lipid mediators, and their biological effects in key events for the pathophysiology of hepatic necroinflammation. The results of our first study indicate that an omega-3 PUFA-enriched diet induces 17-HDHA and PD1 hepatic formation, which are able to reduce genotoxic damage and oxidative stress in hepatocytes, as well as key inflammatory markers in macrophages.Second, we examined omega-3 PUFA actions on hepatic steatosis, insulin sensitivity and adipokines expression, eicosanoid and omega-3 PUFA-derived bioactive lipid mediators profile in adipose tissue, as well as RvE1 and PD1 contribution to omega-3 PUFA actions on hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance. The results of our second study indicate that omega-3 PUFA ameliorate hepatic steatosis and insulin tolerance, induce insulin-sensitizing genes in adipose and liver tissue, increase adiponectin expression, activate AMPK and induce resolvins and protectins formation in adipose tissue. Moreover, RvE1 y PD1 reproduce omega-3 PUFA beneficial effects on hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance. Taken together, these results indicate that omega-3 PUFA display potent protective actions on hepatic inflamation and obesity-induced alterations. These beneficial effects are mediated, at least in part, by resolvins and protectins synthesis from their omega-3 PUFA precursors

An investigation of the resolution of inflammation (catabasis) in COPD.

Background: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is characterized by an enhanced inflammatory response to smoking that persists despite quitting. The resolution of inflammation (catabasis) is a complex and highly regulated process where tissue resident macrophages play a key role since they phagocytose apoptotic cells (efferocytosis), preventing their secondary necrosis and the spill-over of their pro-inflammatory cytoplasmic content, and release pro-resolution and tissue repair molecules, such as TGFβ, VEGF and HGF. Because inflammation does not resolve in COPD, we hypothesized that catabasis may be abnormal in these patients. Methods: To explore this hypothesis, we studied lung tissue samples obtained at surgery from 21 COPD patients,22 smokers with normal spirometry and 13 non-smokers controls. In these samples we used: (1)immunohistochemistry to assess the expression of CD44, CD36, VEGF and TGFβ in lung macrophages; (2) real time PCR to determine HGF, PPARγ, TGFβ, VEGF and MMP-9 gene expression; and, (3) ELISA to quantify lipoxin A4, a lipid mediator of catabasis. Results: We found that current and former smokers with COPD showed: (1) more inflammation (higher MMP-9 expression); (2) reduced macrophage surface expression of CD44, a key efferocytosis receptor; and, (3) similar levels of TGFβ, VEGF, HGF, PPARγ, and lipoxin A4 than smokers with normal spirometry, despite the presence of inflammation and disease. Conclusions: These results identify several potential abnormalities of catabasis in patients with COPD

New insights into the role of macrophages in adipose tissue inflammation and fatty liver disease: modulation by endogenous omega-3 fatty acid-derived lipid mediators

Obesity is causally linked to a chronic state of 'low-grade' inflammation in adipose tissue. Prolonged, unremitting inflammation in this tissue has a direct impact on insulin-sensitive tissues (i.e., liver) and its timely resolution is a critical step toward reducing the prevalence of related co-morbidities such as insulin resistance and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. This article describes the current state-of-the-art knowledge and novel insights into the role of macrophages in adipose tissue inflammation, with special emphasis on the progressive changes in macrophage polarization observed over the course of obesity. In addition, this article extends the discussion to the contribution of Kupffer cells, the liver resident macrophages, to metabolic liver disease. Special attention is given to the modulation of macrophage responses by omega-3-PUFAs, and more importantly by resolvins, which are potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving autacoids generated from docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids. In fact, resolvins have been shown to work as endogenous 'stop signals' in inflamed adipose tissue and to return this tissue to homeostasis by inducing a phenotypic switch in macrophage polarization toward a pro-resolving phenotype. Collectively, this article offers new views on the role of macrophages in metabolic disease and their modulation by endogenously generated omega-3-PUFA-derived lipid mediators

An investigation of the resolution of inflammation (catabasis) in COPD.

Background: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is characterized by an enhanced inflammatory response to smoking that persists despite quitting. The resolution of inflammation (catabasis) is a complex and highly regulated process where tissue resident macrophages play a key role since they phagocytose apoptotic cells (efferocytosis), preventing their secondary necrosis and the spill-over of their pro-inflammatory cytoplasmic content, and release pro-resolution and tissue repair molecules, such as TGFβ, VEGF and HGF. Because inflammation does not resolve in COPD, we hypothesized that catabasis may be abnormal in these patients. Methods: To explore this hypothesis, we studied lung tissue samples obtained at surgery from 21 COPD patients,22 smokers with normal spirometry and 13 non-smokers controls. In these samples we used: (1)immunohistochemistry to assess the expression of CD44, CD36, VEGF and TGFβ in lung macrophages; (2) real time PCR to determine HGF, PPARγ, TGFβ, VEGF and MMP-9 gene expression; and, (3) ELISA to quantify lipoxin A4, a lipid mediator of catabasis. Results: We found that current and former smokers with COPD showed: (1) more inflammation (higher MMP-9 expression); (2) reduced macrophage surface expression of CD44, a key efferocytosis receptor; and, (3) similar levels of TGFβ, VEGF, HGF, PPARγ, and lipoxin A4 than smokers with normal spirometry, despite the presence of inflammation and disease. Conclusions: These results identify several potential abnormalities of catabasis in patients with COPD