Mingling and mixing features in basaltic Andesites of the Eastern Cordillera (Central Andes, 24°s): a petrographic and microanalytical study

The basaltic andesites of the Diego de Almagro volcanic complex (Central Andes, 24°S, 66°W) were erupted during Late Miocene at 300 km from the active arc, in the Eastern Cordillera, at the easternmost end of an important strike-slip structure, the Calama-Olocapato-El Toro. These volcanic rocks preserved traces of their pristine history in the form of xenocrysts and in the diverse populations of phenocrysts coexisting due to magma mixing. In Central Andes, crustal contamination commonly conditions the composition of magmas ascending through the thick continental crust, masking the characteristics of the mantle sources. Thus, we carried out detailed petrography and mineral chemistry studies on selected Diego de Almagro basaltic andesites, with the aim to identify the populations of crystals in equilibrium with mafic melts. The results suggested that mixing of basaltic and andesitic magmas occurred during the ascent and storage in the crust. The fraction of basaltic magma prevailed in the mixing process compared to the andesitic one. Crystal zoning and disequilibrium features indicate that magma mixing produced intimate hybridisation. The preservation of primitive crystal assemblages is probably due to the geological situation in which the Diego de Almagro complex emplaced, that favoured the formation of monogenetic volcanic centres rather than of a central volcanic edifice, thus limiting the residence of mafic magmas in the crust and their interaction with crustal partial melts.Le andesiti basaltiche appartenenti al complesso vulcanico Diego de Almagro (Ande Centrali, 24°S, 66°W) sono state emesse nel Miocene Superiore a ben 300 km verso E dall’arco attivo, nella Cordigliera Orientale, all’estremo orientale di una delle più importanti strutture trascorrenti trasversali andine, la Calama-Olocapato-El Toro. Le lave e le piroclastiti di questo complesso vulcanico conservano tracce della loro storia evolutiva sotto forma di xenocristalli e di popolazioni di cristalli in disequilibrio che coesistono grazie a processi di mixing di magmi a diversa composizione. Nelle Ande Centrali, la contaminazione crostale condiziona fortemente la composizione dei magmi che risalgono attraverso la spessa crosta continentale, mascherando le caratteristiche della sorgente mantellica. Per questo motivo, abbiamo ritenuto interessante effettuare uno studio di dettaglio della petrografia e della chimica dei minerali delle andesiti basaltiche di Diego de Almagro, allo scopo di identificare le popolazioni di cristalli in equilibrio con i magmi più primitivi. I risultati raccolti finora hanno mostrato che le andesiti basaltiche sono il prodotto di un processo di mescolamento di magma basaltico ed andesitico verificatosi durante la risalita del magma nella crosta, in condizioni pre-eruttive. Nel processo di mixing che ha prodotto le andesiti basaltiche la frazione di magma basaltico era prevalente in volume rispetto a quella di magma andesitico, e le proprietà fisicochimiche dei due magmi permisero la realizzazione di una avanzata ibridizzazione. L’associazione mineralogica primitiva si è potuta preservare grazie alla particolare situazione geologica del complesso Diego de Almagro, che favoriva la formazione di centri monogenetici piuttosto che lo sviluppo di vulcani centrali, limitando così lo stazionamento dei magmi basici nei serbatoi crostali e di conseguenza l’interazione con la crosta.Fil: Gioncada, Anna. Università degli Studi di Pisa; ItaliaFil: Hauster, Natalia. Universidad Nacional de Salta. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales; ArgentinaFil: Matteini, Massimo. Universidade do Brasília; BrasilFil: Mazzuoli, Roberto. Università degli Studi di Pisa; ItaliaFil: Omarini, Ricardo Hector. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Salta. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales; Argentin

Food Sauces to Understand Volcanoes: a Learning Sequence in Middle School

Some volcanic processes occur at pressures and temperatures very different from daily experience. Such extreme conditions, unreproducible in the classroom, can lead children to build concepts about volcanic phenomena very different from the reality (Greca & Moreira, 2000; Dove, 1998). The didactic goals of this learning sequence concern the relationships between the viscosity of magmas and types of erupted materials and their consequences on volcano shapes, to favour pupils’ comprehension of what a volcano is. Viscosity and its temperature dependence can be easily experimented in class with analogue materials at room temperature (Baker et al., 2004). Our research aims are to observe the development of the thought of pupils of middle schools on volcanic phenomena; this allowed to put in evidence the benefits of this approach and to give suggestions to avoid possible critical points.We have experimented a hands-on learning sequence about volcanoes in four third classes of Tuscan middle schools, for an amount of 95 pupils, 48 females and 47 males. Sharing the principles of constructivism, we think useful that pupils start from their own direct experience for understanding natural phenomena not directly observable. Therefore, we start from the experiences and knowledge of children to build a inquiry-based itinerary (Minner et al., 2010; Pieraccioni et al., 2016). The learning sequence begins with a practical activity in which we employ common and well-known materials to introduce the concept of viscosity in order to relate various kinds of magma to the shape of volcanoes. One of the benefits of this approach is to overcome the problems of introducing complex concepts such as acidity of magmas or silica content, far from the pupils’ experience and knowledge. These concepts are often used in Italian middle school textbooks to describe and classify volcanoes. The result is a list of names to learn by heart. On the contrary, by using oil, ketchup, peanut butter or honey, pupils become familiar with concepts such as viscosity, behavior of fluids, magma, lava, slope of flanks and they can begin to comprehend why volcanoes have got differently named forms

The soil in the classroom: a middle school case study

The Earth sciences have a relevant role in building both scientific competences and citizenship skills; nevertheless, in Italian middle and high schools these are prevalently taught with a poorly effective transmissive approach. This work presents the results of a research carried out choosing the soil as a topic and a class of 11-12 years old pupils as target, aimed at exploring the effectiveness of laboratory-based teaching on the acquisition of permanent scientific competences and on the birth of an autonomous way of learning to learn. The teaching approach used well assessed didactic instruments such as the work group, the exercise book and the sharing of observations. The results show that most pupils were able to use the acquired scientific knowledges and skills in different situations and became more aware of their own learning.Malgré l’importance du rôle des sciences de la Terre pour construire des compétences scientifiques ainsi que citoyennes, l'école secondaire Italienne les enseigne surtout par une méthode transmissive et peu efficace. Ce travail montre les résultats d'une recherche réalisée en choisissant le sol comme sujet d’enseignement avec une classe d’élèves de 11-12 ans. Nous nous sommes demandé si un enseignement fondé sur les activités pratiques est efficace pour l'acquisition de compétences et pour la naissance d'une autonomie d’apprentissage. La méthode d'enseignement s'appuie sur des outils didactiques déjà éprouvés, comme le travail en groupe, le cahier d’exercices, la mise en commun des observations. Les résultats montrent que les élèves ont employé leurs connaissances et habiletés scientifiques dans plusieurs situations et ils ont amélioré leur autonomie dans leurs apprentissages

Mineralogical-chemical Alteration and Origin of Ignimbritic Stones Used in the Old Cathedral of Nostra Signora di Castro (Sardinia, Italy)

The pyroclastic rocks belonging to the Late Eocene-Miocene volcanic activity that occurred in Sardinia between 38 and 15 Ma ago were widely used as construction materials in several Romanesque churches of the easternmost Logudoro area, as well as in large parts of the Sardinia territory. In this work, the ancient Cathedral of Nostra Signora di Castro (twelfth century) was taken as a representative case study. There is no historical or archaeological evidence of ancient quarries. Based on the geochemical, petrographic, and volcanological data on several samples from an extensive field area (approximately 150km2), a geographical zoning of the volcanics has been recognised. In the Oschiri sector, there are three different sub-zones, which can be identified with different volcanic rocks: less fractionated rocks (Differentation Index ∼70–78); intermediately fractionated rocks (D.I. ∼76– 79); and more fractionated rocks (D.I. ∼77–82). To identify the origin of the ignimbrite rocks of the Church of Nostra Signora di Castro, two statistical methods were used: stepwise linear discriminant and canonical analysis. Moreover, to define the geochemical transformation processes induced by the alteration, a comparative study of concentrations of major and trace elements measured by XRF and SEM-EDX analyses on the surface portion and the innermost areas of the stone was made

Evidence of Na-metasomatism of phyllite rocks from the Verrucano of Monti Pisani (Tuscany, Italy

We report here for the first time the occurrence of albitite rocks in the Middle Triassic "Verruca" Formation (Monti Pisani, Northern Apennine, northern Tuscany, Italy). The albitite is the result of a pervasive Na-metasomatism of phyllites (originally formed by potassic white mica + quartz + chlorite + hematite + albite). The albitisation process took place after the Miocene main phases of Apenninic deformation and was followed by the formation of a system of veins made of Fe-carbonate ± quartz. Hydrothermal alteration continued with the ingression, possibly favored by the increase of permeability due to albitization, of a slightly acidic, oxidizing, aqueous fluid that led to the kaolinization of the albitite and to the complete replacement of the Fe-carbonate of the veins by Fe-hydroxides. This stage was followed by a supergene alteration that led to the formation of a pervasive network of tiny veins of halloysite and colloform (P-Al-Si)-bearing Fe-hydroxides. Finally, the hydrothermally altered rock underwent a localized brittle fracturing without new minerals formed. The most important chemical changes occurred during the whole hydrothermal process were the inversion of the Na2O/K2O ratio of the whole rocks (from 0.07 in the pristine phyllite to up to 200 for the kaolinized albitite), the loss of Fe and Mg, and the enrichment of Sb. Light REE and HREE behaved conservatively, whereas MREE were partially lost. The occurrences of hydrothermal alteration are common in central-southern Tuscany, and generally related to the post-collisional extensional regime, lithospheric thinnning, and emplacement of magmatic bodies in the crust. The Monti Pisani kaolinized albitite, altough occurring far from potential magmatic sources, can be considered related to this post-collisional extensional tectonic setting, thus stretching out northward the occurrence of post-Miocene hydrothermal activity in Tuscany

Rare element minerals’ assemblage in El Quemado pegmatites (Argentina): insights for pegmatite melt evolution from gahnite, columbite-group minerals and tourmaline chemistry and implications for minerogenesis

The pegmatite district of El Quemado (NW Pampean Ranges, NW Argentina) hosts several Ordovician pegmatite bodies of theLCT (Li, Cs, Ta) type. We present paragenetic assemblages for a set of samples from two of the El Quemado pegmatite groups,Santa Elena and Tres Tetas, and mineral chemistry analyses for gahnite, columbite-group minerals, tourmaline, micas, albite,microcline, and discuss the relation between their major element composition and the degree of evolution of pegmatite melts. Thechemical composition of rare element minerals allows recognizing an evolutive trend reaching highly differentiated compositions, with complex paragenetic assemblages including Li-, Zr-, U-, Zn-, P-, Mn- and Ta-bearing minerals. The temperature ofcrystallization during the magmatic phase was below 400 °C. Non-pervasive hydrothermal alteration, testified by a moderatepresence of phyllosilicates, affected the pegmatite bodies. Chlorite geothermometry indicates that the circulation of postmagmatic hydrothermal fluids occurred at a temperature ranging between 200 °C and 250 °C. The mineralogical featuresrecognized in the El Quemado pegmatite rocks have implications for the metallogenesis of the region, suggesting that thepegmatites potentially contributed to the genesis of Ta-Nb oxide placer mineralizations.Fil: López, Vanina Lucrecia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Grupo Vinculado al INSUGEO- Centro de Estudios Geológicos Andinos; ArgentinaFil: Fulignati, Paolo. Universita Degli Studi Di Pisa. Dipartimento Di Scienze Della Terra; ItaliaFil: Gioncada, Anna. Universita Degli Studi Di Pisa. Dipartimento Di Scienze Della Terra; ItaliaFil: Azarevich, Miguel Basilio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Grupo Vinculado al INSUGEO- Centro de Estudios Geologicos Andinos; Argentin

Inside baleen: Exceptional microstructure preservation in a late Miocene whale skeleton from Peru

Exceptionally preserved delicate baleen microstructures have been found in association with the skeleton of a late Miocene balaenopteroid whale in a dolomite concretion of the Pisco Formation, Peru. Microanalytical data (scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, X-ray diffraction) on fossil baleen are provided and the results are discussed in terms of their taphonomic and paleoecological implications. Baleen fossilization modes at this site include molding of plates and tubules, and phosphatization. A rapid formation of the concretion was fundamental for fossilization. We suggest that the whale foundered in a soft sediment chemically favorable to rapid dolomite precipitation, allowing the preservation of delicate structures. Morphometric considerations on the baleen plates and bristles coupled with the reconstructed calcification of the latter permit speculation on the trophic preferences of this balaenopteroid whale: the densely spaced plates and the fine and calcified bristles provide evidence for feeding on small-sized plankton, as does the modern sei whale

How whales used to filter: exceptionally preserved baleen in a Miocene cetotheriid

Baleen is a comb-like structure that enables mysticete whales to bulk feed on vast quantities of small prey, and ultimately allowed them to become the largest animals on Earth. Because baleen rarely fossilises, extremely little is known about its evolution, structure and function outside the living families. Here we describe, for the first time, the exceptionally preserved baleen apparatus of an entirely extinct mysticete morphotype: the Late Miocene cetotheriid, Piscobalaena nana, from the Pisco Formation of Peru. The baleen plates of P. nana are closely spaced and built around relatively dense, fine tubules, as in the enigmatic pygmy right whale, Caperea marginata. Phosphatisation of the intertubular horn, but not the tubules themselves, suggests in vivo intertubular calcification. The size of the rack matches the distribution of nutrient foramina on the palate, and implies the presence of an unusually large subrostral gap. Overall, the baleen morphology of Piscobalaena likely reflects the interacting effects of size, function and phylogeny, and reveals a previously unknown degree of complexity in modern mysticete feeding evolution

Looking for the key to preservation of fossil marine vertebrates in the Pisco Formation of Peru: new insights from a small dolphin skeleton

The upper Neogene Pisco Formation of Peru is known worldwide as one of the most significant Cenozoic marine vertebrate Konservatt-Lagerstätten, even featuring cetacean specimens that retain remains of soft tissues or stomach contents. Previous works showed that biomediated precipitation of dolomite concretions around large-sized decaying carcasses was one of the most relevant processes responsible for exceptional fossil preservation. In turn, little is known about the modes of fossilization of well-preserved small-sized vertebrates, which are rather common in the Pisco Formation, but mostly do not exhibit dolomite concretions. We report on a cetacean specimen, identified as belonging to the extinct short-snouted, small dolphin species Brachydelphis mazeasi (Pontoporiidae), preserved within a late Miocene sandy deposit at the site of Pampa Corre Viento. This specimen consists of a moderately disarticulated partial skeleton exhibiting well-mineralized bones; it is not enclosed within a dolomite concretion, being however delimited by an evident dark boundary in the host sediment. Scanning electron microscopy and microanalytical investigations identify Mn-oxides and apatite as early diagenetic minerals around the skeleton. We argue that a rapid burial of the specimen was pivotal for the preservation of the bones, and allowed the early establishment of anoxic processes for degradation of organic matter. Coupled with availability of P in porewater, the reducing conditions and the lowered pH allowed precipitation of Ca-phosphate while increasing Mn solubility close to the pontoporiid carcass. Mn-oxides precipitated at the redox boundary, the latter defining the outer edge of the volume of sediment affected by altered chemical conditions due to the decaying processes. The permeability of the sediment and the small size of the carcass were possible factors unfavorable to extensive sulfate reduction, thus preventing the formation of a dolomite concretion and allowing bone phosphatization. This record emphasizes the role of conditions favorable to bone mineralization in absence of an isolating carbonate concretion, in cases of high quality preservation of small-sized vertebrates observed in the Pisco Formation. The observation of patterns in the distribution of diagenetic minerals in the sediment enclosing vertebrate remains without, or with limited carbonate concretions provides insights into early taphonomic processes

Insights into the diagenetic environment of fossil marine vertebrates of the Pisco Formation (late Miocene, Peru) from mineralogical and Sr-isotope data

The late Miocene Pisco Formation of Peru is an outstanding example of richness and high-quality preservation of fossil marine vertebrates. In order to reconstruct the fossilization path, we present new textural, mineralogical and Sr-isotope data of diagenetic minerals formed in correspondence of fossil specimens such as marine vertebrates and mollusks. These fossil specimens were found at Cerro los Quesos, in the Ica Desert, within the diatomaceous strata of the Pisco Formation. Dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite and Mn minerals are the main phases found, while the calcium carbonate originally forming the mollusk valves is replaced by gypsum. An early formation of dolomite and of Mn minerals, triggered by the modifications of the geochemical environment due to organic matter degradation, is suggested by the textural relationships and is confirmed by the Sr isotopic ratio of dolomite, which agrees with that of seawater at the time of sedimentation. Instead, gypsum Sr isotopic ratios indicate a pre-Miocene seawater-derived brine circulating within the sedimentary sequence as a source for Sr. Oxidation of diagenetic sulfide causing a lowering of the pH of porewater is proposed as an explanation for Cacarbonate dissolution. The diagenetic chemical environment was, nevertheless, favorable to bone preservation