Atomic force microscopy studies of protein interactions with lipid membranes

The behaviour of biological components in cellular membranes is vital to the function of cells however many vital phenomena associated with membrane functions are not yet fully understood. Supported lipid bilayers provide a model of real cellular membranes. This thesis examines how increasing the complexity of model lipid bilayers through changes in lipid composition, membrane protein content and cytoskeletal interactions can be used to extract significant biological information with biophysical techniques and analysis. The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a powerful tool in the study of biological systems allowing both three dimensional sub-nanometer resolution and mechanical interrogation under physiological conditions. The recent arrival of high-speed atomic force microscopy has transformed the information and processes which can be obtained, enabling direct imaging of biomolecular processes in real time. The work in this thesis shows that the AFM cannot only be used to investigate membranes but also deposit them in situ at lateral scales comparable to their height. Studies of confining lipid and protein diffusion in these quasi-one dimensional systems shows confinement reduces mobility of lipid with important implications on the behaviour of pores and defects cellular membranes. Studies of lipid phase behaviour of compositions thought be simplified models of the cell membrane lipid content show evidence that the small “raft” domains detected in real cells are not stable equilibrium phase separated domains, but non-equilibrium compositional fluctuations. Actin polymerisation induced at positively charged bilayers in non-polymerising conditions provides new insight into polymerisation processes whilst also describing a simple novel method to create “synthetic” robust actin-membrane scaffolds with controllable coverage. This polymerisation process was then applied to coating of lipid microbubbles for combined ultrasound imaging and drug delivery applications. The addition of the actin coating increased bubbles lifetimes, stability, elasticity and stiffness whilst allowing the attachment of model drug carriers

Visualization of diffusion limited antimicrobial peptide attack on supported lipid membranes

Understanding the mechanism of action of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) is fundamental to the development and design of peptide based antimicrobials. Utilizing fast-scan atomic force microscopy (AFM) we detail the attack of an AMP on both prototypical prokaryotic (DOPC:DOPG) and eukaryotic (DOPC:DOPE) model lipid membranes on the nanoscale and in real time. Previously shown to have a favourable therapeutic index, we study Smp43, an AMP with a helical-hinge-helical topology isolated from the venom of the North African scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus. We observe the dynamic formation of highly branched defects being supported by 2D diffusion models and further experimental data from liposome leakage assays and quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) analysis, we propose that Smp43 disrupts these membranes via a common mechanism, which we have termed ‘diffusion limited disruption’ that encompasses elements of both the carpet model and the expanding pore mechanism

Stat2 loss disrupts damage signalling and is protective in acute pancreatitis

The severity of sterile inflammation, as seen in acute pancreatitis, is determined by damage-sensing receptors, signalling cascades and cytokine production. Stat2 is a type I interferon signalling mediator that also has interferon-independent roles in murine lipopolysaccharide-induced NF-κB-mediated sepsis. However, its role in sterile inflammation is unknown. We hypothesised that Stat2 determines the severity of non-infective inflammation in the pancreas. Wild type (WT) and Stat2-/- mice were injected intraperitoneally with caerulein or L-arginine. Specific cytokine-blocking antibodies were used in some experiments. Pancreata and blood were harvested 1 h and 24 h after the final dose of caerulein and up to 96 h post L-arginine. Whole-tissue phosphoproteomic changes were assessed using label-free mass spectrometry. Tissue-specific Stat2 effects were studied in WT/Stat2-/- bone-marrow chimera and using Cre-lox recombination to delete Stat2 in pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1(Pdx1)-expressing cells. Stat2-/- mice were protected from caerulein- and L-arginine-induced pancreatitis. Protection was independent of type I interferon signalling. Stat2-/- mice had lower cytokine levels including TNFα and IL-10 and reduced NF-kB nuclear localisation in pancreatic tissue compared to WT. Inhibition of TNFα improved (inhibition of IL-10 worsened) caerulein-induced pancreatitis in WT but not Stat2-/- mice. Phosphoproteomics showed down-regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) mediators but accumulation of Ser412-phosphorylated Tak1. Stat2 deletion in Pdx1-expressing acinar cells (Stat2flox/Pdx1-cre ) reduced pancreatic TNFα expression, but not histological injury or serum amylase. WT/Stat2-/- bone-marrow chimera mice were protected from pancreatitis irrespective of host or recipient genotype. Stat2 loss results in disrupted signalling in pancreatitis, upstream of NF-κB in non-acinar and/or bone marrow derived cells. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Watching individual molecules flex within lipid membranes using SERS.

Interrogating individual molecules within bio-membranes is key to deepening our understanding of biological processes essential for life. Using Raman spectroscopy to map molecular vibrations is ideal to non-destructively 'fingerprint' biomolecules for dynamic information on their molecular structure, composition and conformation. Such tag-free tracking of molecules within lipid bio-membranes can directly connect structure and function. In this paper, stable co-assembly with gold nano-components in a 'nanoparticle-on-mirror' geometry strongly enhances the local optical field and reduces the volume probed to a few nm(3), enabling repeated measurements for many tens of minutes on the same molecules. The intense gap plasmons are assembled around model bio-membranes providing molecular identification of the diffusing lipids. Our experiments clearly evidence measurement of individual lipids flexing through telltale rapid correlated vibrational shifts and intensity fluctuations in the Raman spectrum. These track molecules that undergo bending and conformational changes within the probe volume, through their interactions with the environment. This technique allows for in situ high-speed single-molecule investigations of the molecules embedded within lipid bio-membranes. It thus offers a new way to investigate the hidden dynamics of cell membranes important to a myriad of life processes.We acknowledge financial support from EPSRC grant EP/G060649/1, EP/I012060/1, ERC grant LINASS 320503. FB acknowledges support from the Winton Programme for the Physics of Sustainability.This is the final published version. It's also available from Nature Publishing at http://www.nature.com/srep/2014/140812/srep05940/full/srep05940.html

The Influence of Water on the Optical Properties of Single-Layer Molybdenum Disulfide

Adsorbed molecules can significantly affect the properties of atomically thin materials. Physisorbed water plays a significant role in altering the optoelectronic properties of single-layer MoS_2, one such 2D film. Here we demonstrate the distinct quenching effect of adsorbed water on the photoluminescence of single-layer MoS_2 through scanning-probe and optical microscopies

Diffusion in low-dimensional lipid membranes

The diffusion behavior of biological components in cellular membranes is vital to the function of cells. By collapsing the complexity of planar 2D membranes down to one dimension, fundamental investigations of bimolecular behavior become possible in one dimension. Here we develop lipid nanolithography methods to produce membranes, under fluid, with widths as low as 6 nm but extending to microns in length. We find reduced lipid mobility, as the width is reduced below 50 nm, suggesting different lipid packing in the vicinity of boundaries. The insertion of a membrane protein, M2, into these systems, allowed characterization of protein diffusion using high-speed AFM to demonstrate the first membrane protein 1D random walk. These quasi-1D lipid bilayers are ideal for testing and understanding fundamental concepts about the roles of dimensionality and size on physical properties of membranes from energy transfer to lipid packing

Phospholipid dependent mechanism of smp24, an α-helical antimicrobial peptide from scorpion venom

Determining the mechanism of action of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) is critical if they are to be developed into the clinical setting. In recent years high resolution techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) have increasingly been utilised to determine AMP mechanism of action on planar lipid bilayers and live bacteria. Here we present the biophysical characterisation of a prototypical AMP from the venom of the North African scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus termed Smp24. Smp24 is an amphipathic helical peptide containing 24 residues with a charge of + 3 and exhibits both antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity and we aim to elucidate the mechanism of action of this peptide on both membrane systems. Using AFM, quartz crystal microbalance-dissipation (QCM-D) and liposomal leakage assays the effect of Smp24 on prototypical synthetic prokaryotic (DOPG:DOPC) and eukaryotic (DOPE:DOPC) membranes has been determined. Our data points to a toroidal pore mechanism against the prokaryotic like membrane whilst the formation of hexagonal phase non-lamellar phase structures is seen in eukaryotic like membrane. Also, phase segregation is observed against the eukaryotic membrane and this study provides direct evidence of the same peptide having multiple mechanisms of action depending on the membrane lipid composition

Measurement of the diffractive structure function in deep inelastic scattering at HERA

This paper presents an analysis of the inclusive properties of diffractive deep inelastic scattering events produced in $ep$ interactions at HERA. The events are characterised by a rapidity gap between the outgoing proton system and the remaining hadronic system. Inclusive distributions are presented and compared with Monte Carlo models for diffractive processes. The data are consistent with models where the pomeron structure function has a hard and a soft contribution. The diffractive structure function is measured as a function of \xpom, the momentum fraction lost by the proton, of $\beta$, the momentum fraction of the struck quark with respect to \xpom, and of $Q^2$. The \xpom dependence is consistent with the form \xpoma where $a~=~1.30~\pm~0.08~(stat)~^{+~0.08}_{-~0.14}~(sys)$ in all bins of $\beta$ and $Q^2$. In the measured $Q^2$ range, the diffractive structure function approximately scales with $Q^2$ at fixed $\beta$. In an Ingelman-Schlein type model, where commonly used pomeron flux factor normalisations are assumed, it is found that the quarks within the pomeron do not saturate the momentum sum rule.Comment: 36 pages, latex, 11 figures appended as uuencoded fil

Genotypic and phenotypic analyses of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa chronic bronchiectasis isolate reveal differences from cystic fibrosis and laboratory strains

Background Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an environmentally ubiquitous Gram-negative bacterium and important opportunistic human pathogen, causing severe chronic respiratory infections in patients with underlying conditions such as cystic fibrosis (CF) or bronchiectasis. In order to identify mechanisms responsible for adaptation during bronchiectasis infections, a bronchiectasis isolate, PAHM4, was phenotypically and genotypically characterized. Results This strain displays phenotypes that have been associated with chronic respiratory infections in CF including alginate over-production, rough lipopolysaccharide, quorum-sensing deficiency, loss of motility, decreased protease secretion, and hypermutation. Hypermutation is a key adaptation of this bacterium during the course of chronic respiratory infections and analysis indicates that PAHM4 encodes a mutated mutS gene responsible for a ~1,000-fold increase in mutation rate compared to wild-type laboratory strain P. aeruginosa PAO1. Antibiotic resistance profiles and sequence data indicate that this strain acquired numerous mutations associated with increased resistance levels to β-lactams, aminoglycosides, and fluoroquinolones when compared to PAO1. Sequencing of PAHM4 revealed a 6.38 Mbp genome, 5.9 % of which were unrecognized in previously reported P. aeruginosa genome sequences. Transcriptome analysis suggests a general down-regulation of virulence factors, while metabolism of amino acids and lipids is up-regulated when compared to PAO1 and metabolic modeling identified further potential differences between PAO1 and PAHM4. Conclusions This work provides insights into the potential differential adaptation of this bacterium to the lung of patients with bronchiectasis compared to other clinical settings such as cystic fibrosis, findings that should aid the development of disease-appropriate treatment strategies for P. aeruginosa infections