Equine Transport and Changes in Equid Herpesvirus' Status

The risk of respiratory disease in the transported horse can increase as a consequence of immunosuppression and stress associated primarily with opportunistic bacterial proliferation and viral reactivation. This study examines the ecology of equid herpesviruses (EHV) in these horses, exploring reactivation and changes in infection and shedding associated with transport, and any potential contributions to transport-related respiratory disease. Twelve horses were subjected to an 8-h road-transport event. Antibodies to EHV-1 and EHV-4 were detected by ELISA in serum collected prior to, immediately after and 2 weeks post transport. Respiratory tract endoscopy and tracheal washes were collected prior to and 5 days after transportation. Nasal swabs collected prior to, immediately after, 1 and 5 days following transport were screened for EHV-1,-2,-4,-5 using qPCR. Six horses had persistent neutrophilic airway infiltrates post transportation, indicative of subclinical respiratory disease. No horses were qPCR positive for either of the alphaherpesviruses (i.e., EHV-1/-4) nor did any seroconvert to either virus. Four out of nine horses positive for either EHV-2 or EHV-5 on qPCR prior to transport developed neutrophilic airway inflammation. Five horses showed increasingly positive readings on qPCR (i.e., reduced Cq) for EHV-2 after transportation and seven out of eleven horses positive for EHV-2 after transport shared strains of high sequence similarity with other horses in the study. One EHV-2 virus detected in one horse after transport was genetically different which may be due to reactivation. The clinical significance of EHV-2 and EHV-5 remains in question. However these results indicate that transportation may lead to increased shedding, transmission and reactivation of EHV-2 and EHV-5 but not EHV-1/-4. Unlike previous work focusing on the role of alphaherpesviruses, this research suggests that investigation of the gammaherpesviruses (i.e., EHV-2/-5) in transport-related disease should not be dismissed, particularly given that these viruses can encode suppressive immunomodulators that may affect host health

Infection, colonization and shedding of Campylobacter and Salmonella in animals and their contribution to human disease: A review

Livestock meat and offal contribute significantly to human nutrition as sources of high‐quality protein and micronutrients. Livestock products are increasingly in demand, particularly in low‐ and middle‐income settings where economies are growing and meat is increasingly seen as an affordable and desirable food item. Demand is also driving intensification of livestock keeping and processing. An unintended consequence of intensification is increased exposure to zoonotic agents, and a contemporary emerging problem is infection with Campylobacter and Salmonella spp. from livestock (avian and mammalian), which can lead to disease, malabsorption and undernutrition through acute and chronic diarrhoea. This can occur at the farm, in households or through the food chain. Direct infection occurs when handling livestock and through bacteria shed into the environment, on food preparation surfaces or around the house and surroundings. This manuscript critically reviews Campylobacter and Salmonella infections in animals, examines the factors affecting colonization and faecal shedding of bacteria of these two genera as well as risk factors for human acquisition of the infection from infected animals or environment and analyses priority areas for preventive actions with a focus on resource‐poor settings

Effects of farm management on ecology of virulent Rhodococcus equi

© 2005 Gary Muscatello.Environmental samples (air and soil) were collected from thoroughbred breeding farms with different prevalences of R. equi pneumonia to increase our understanding of the ecology of virulent R. equi on horse farms. The airborne population of virulent R. equi was a major focus of this research, as inhalation of the pathogen from the environment is considered the primary route of pulmonary infection. Air sampling was performed using an air monitoring system with selective media to facilitate the recovery of R. equi, allowing quantitative measurement of airborne virulent R. equi. Polymerase chain reaction and DNA hybridisation techniques were used to evaluate environmental samples to identify and differentiate R. equi

Effects of Transportation on Redox Homeostasis and Tracheal Mucus

The aim of this pilot study was to document the effects of transportation on markers of oxidative stress (OS) in blood, exhaled breath condensate (EBC), and saliva and to explore their relationships with transport-related increases in tracheal mucus. Twelve horses, six Standardbred, and six Thoroughbred, aging from 3 to 8 years, underwent an 8-hour journey during which they had no access to food or water. Clinical examinations and sampling of blood, EBC, and saliva were performed preloading, at unloading, 12 and 24 hours, and 5 days after journey. Concentration of oxidants (reactive oxygen metabolites [ROMs], advanced oxidation protein product [AOPP], ceruloplasmin [CP], hydrogen peroxide in the EBC) and antioxidants (plasma total antioxidant status [PTAS] and saliva total antioxidant status [STAS], glutathione) were determined, and the oxidative stress index (OSI = ROMs/PTAS Ã\u97 100) was calculated. Respiratory endoscopy was performed at preloading and unloading, and tracheal mucus was scored. Oxidative stress variables were analyzed using proc mixed procedure with time as the fixed factor, and the variation in mucus score was analyzed by median test. The relationships between OS markers and mucus score were examined by linear regression analysis. Transportation caused a significant increase in tracheal mucus and in the concentrations of ROMs, AOPP, CP, PTAS, and STAS (all P > .05). Tracheal mucus was positively associated with ROMs and OSI (R2 = 57.8, P = .004; and R2 = 70.3, P < .001, respectively). However, animals did not experience OS, as reflected in the lack of changes in OSI. Overall, although the transported horses experienced oxidative and respiratory challenges, they were able to maintain redox homeostasis and did not develop clinical disease

Effects of Transportation on Redox Homeostasis and Tracheal Mucus

The aim of this pilot study was to document the effects of transportation on markers of oxidative stress (OS) in blood, exhaled breath condensate (EBC), and saliva and to explore their relationships with transport-related increases in tracheal mucus. Twelve horses, six Standardbred, and six Thoroughbred, aging from 3 to 8 years, underwent an 8-hour journey during which they had no access to food or water. Clinical examinations and sampling of blood, EBC, and saliva were performed preloading, at unloading, 12 and 24 hours, and 5 days after journey. Concentration of oxidants (reactive oxygen metabolites [ROMs], advanced oxidation protein product [AOPP], ceruloplasmin [CP], hydrogen peroxide in the EBC) and antioxidants (plasma total antioxidant status [PTAS] and saliva total antioxidant status [STAS], glutathione) were determined, and the oxidative stress index (OSI = ROMs/PTAS \uc3\u97 100) was calculated. Respiratory endoscopy was performed at preloading and unloading, and tracheal mucus was scored. Oxidative stress variables were analyzed using proc mixed procedure with time as the fixed factor, and the variation in mucus score was analyzed by median test. The relationships between OS markers and mucus score were examined by linear regression analysis. Transportation caused a significant increase in tracheal mucus and in the concentrations of ROMs, AOPP, CP, PTAS, and STAS (all P &gt; .05). Tracheal mucus was positively associated with ROMs and OSI (R2 = 57.8, P = .004; and R2 = 70.3, P &lt; .001, respectively). However, animals did not experience OS, as reflected in the lack of changes in OSI. Overall, although the transported horses experienced oxidative and respiratory challenges, they were able to maintain redox homeostasis and did not develop clinical disease

Investigations into equine transport-related problem behaviours: survey results

Transport-related problem behaviours (TRPB) in horses are an animal welfare concern and many training methods in loading/travelling have been recommended to reduce their incidence. This study aimed to investigate the incidence of TRPB and training methods in Australia, and to identify risks for, and consequences of TRPB. An online survey was conducted and respondents reported whether and how they trained horses for loading/travelling. They were also asked whether their horses suffered from transport-related problem behaviours or injuries, the industry sector in which they participated, and details of the vehicle used for transport. TRPB were classified into: preloading (PLPB), loading (LPB), travelling (TPB) and unloading (UPB). Training methods were classified into: operant conditioning (OC), self-loading (SL), habituation (H) and no training (NT). TRPB were reported by 38.0% of respondents, mainly at loading and travelling. While 43.5% of respondents did not train their horses, OC, H and SL were applied by 25.5%, 20.2% and 10.8%, respectively. In 98% of cases, OC was applied by negative reinforcement/positive punishment. Training method was identified as a risk factor for all types of TRPB: their odds were higher in horses trained by OC and NT compared to SL and H. Racing horses were at high risk of TPB (P<0.001). Two-horse straight float were associated with a higher risk of PLPB (P=0.018) and LPB (P=0.007) and injuries (P=0.022). While loading and travelling problems were a risk factor for transport-related injuries, H and SL reduced this risk. These training approaches are recommended to safeguard horse welfare during transpor

A Survey on Transport Management Practices Associated with Injuries and Health Problems in Horses.

An online survey was conducted to determine associations between transport management and transport-related injuries and diseases in horses in Australia. The survey was composed of three sections: respondents' demographic information, transport management strategies or procedures (before, during and after transportation) and transport diseases experienced in the previous two year period. Univariate and multivariate modelling was performed exploring associations between variables (respondents' details and transport management strategies) and the following transport-related diseases as outcomes: traumatic injuries, diarrhoea, heat stroke, muscular problems, laminitis, transport pneumonia and colic. The survey generated 797 responses. Traumatic injuries were the most common transport-related problem, with a reported incidence of 45.0%. Younger respondents (30 in a week) were more likely to report transport-related injuries. Injury risk was also linked to the use of protections and tranquilizers prior to transport, and checking horses after the journey. Diarrhoea (20.0%) and heat stroke (10.5%) were reported more by amateur than professional horse carers. Increased risk of heat stroke was linked to the restriction of hay and water prior to transportation. Muscular problems (13.0%) appeared to be exacerbated when horse health was not assessed before journey; whilst the risk of laminitis (2.9%) was around three fold greater when post transport recovery strategies were not applied. Associations were made between transport pneumonia (9.2%) and duration of journey, and with activity (horses involved in racing at greater risk). No associations were seen between the incidence of colic (10.3%) and the variables examined. Study findings should be interpreted with caution as they represent participant perceptions and recall. Nevertheless, results support many current recommendations for safe transportation of horses. They also highlight the need to further investigate many of identified management factors to refine existing policies and practices in equine transportation

Immunological, clinical, haematological and oxidative responses to long distance transportation in horses

Horses are transported frequently and often over long distances. Transportation may represent a physiological stressor with consequential health and welfare implications. This study reports the effects of a long distance journey on immunological, clinical, haematological, inflammatory and oxidative parameters in an Experimental Group (EG) of ten horses, comparing them with six horses of similar age and breed used as a non-transported Control Group (CG). Clinical examination and blood sampling were performed twice on all horses: immediately after unloading for the EG, and at rest on the same day for the CG (day 1); at rest on the same day one week later for both groups (day 7). On day 1 EG horses showed increased heart and respiratory rates (P < 0.01), rectal temperature (P < 0.05), capillary refilling time (P < 0.01), neutrophil numbers (P < 0.01), serum albumin (P < 0.01), plasma total antioxidant status (P < 0.01), and a lower rate of mitogen induced proliferation of lymphocytes (P < 0.05), in comparison with CG. On day 7 only an increase in total serum protein (P < 0.05) and serum globulins (P < 0.001) was seen in the EG. No difference in serum cortisol concentration was found. Long distance transportation induced an acute phase response impairing the cell-mediated immune response. Clinical examinations, including assessing CRT and body weight loss, and the monitoring of redox balance may be useful in evaluating the impact of extensive transport events on horses. A better understanding of the link between transportation stress, the immune system and the acute phase response is likely to inform strategies for enhancing the welfare of transported horses

Health problems and risk factors associated with long haul transport of horses in Australia

Equine transportation is associated with a variety of serious health disorders causing economic losses. However; statistics on horse transport are limited and epidemiological data on transport related diseases are available only for horses transported to abattoirs for slaughter. This study analysed reports of transport related health problems identified by drivers and horse owners for 180 journeys of an Australian horse transport company transporting horses between Perth and Sydney (~4000 km) in 2013–2015. Records showed that 97.2% (1604/1650) of the horses arrived at their destination with no clinical signs of disease or injury. Based on the veterinary reports of the affected horses; the most common issues were respiratory problems (27%); gastrointestinal problems (27%); pyrexia (19%); traumatic injuries (15%); and death (12%). Journey duration and season had a significant effect on the distribution of transport related issues ( p &lt; 0.05); with a marked increase of the proportion of the most severe problems ( i.e. , gastrointestinal; respiratory problems and death) in spring and after 20 h in transit. Although not statistically significant; elevated disease rate predictions were seen for stallions/colts; horses aged over 10 years; and Thoroughbreds. Overall; the data demonstrate that long haul transportation is a risk for horse health and welfare and requires appropriate management to minimize transport stress