proximity conflict's resolution and innovation networks of French biotechnology SMe's

During the eighties, small Sme’s of the so-called « Third Italy » obtain high performances. So Italian scholars ( Baganasco, 1977, Becattini, 1979, Brusco, 1982) underline some elements that remind the English districts studied by Marshall. These works open the way to a set of theories based on the same hypothesis of the importance of geographic proximity to innovate. Between them one can list innovative milieux (Aydalot, 1986, Camagni, 1991, Maillat, 1995), national and regional systems of innovation (Lundvall, 1992, Nelson, 1993, Edquist, 1997), local productive systems (Courlet, Pecqueur, 1989), technological districts (Saxenian, 1994) and clusters (Porter, 1998). But all these works have often postulated the real importance of geographic proximity to innovate, and the one of cooperation. Besides, the part of organizational proximity has been underestimated. So our problematic is to bring to the fore what are the factors which explain the coupling of geographic and organizational proximity. Biotechnology present important specificity, especially in terms of the importance of cooperation. But conflicts become very important too in this industry, besides they may increase because of the modification of property rights. We studied innovation networks of French biotechnology Sme’s. As a first result, we brought to the fore that networks can use three kinds of global geographic proximity. Then we demonstrate that the kind of conflict’s resolution explain the coupling of geographic and organizational proximity. Cooperative resolution is coupled with geographic proximity to solve conflicts and with organizational proximity (in the similarity logic). Avoiding resolution is coupled with no geographic proximity to solve conflicts (ICT are used to solve these conflicts), and with belonging kind of organizational proximity. At last, forcing resolution is coupled with belonging but with a little of geographic proximity to solve conflicts.

Knowledge production and patterns of proximity: French sme¿s of biotechnology

Nowadays, innovation is the main factor of firms and regions competitiveness. But, the conditions necessary to improve its development remain still unknown, particularly there are few works about spatial aspects of its appearance. Few monographs exist on the efficiency of 'local' networks, but no theoretical patterns. We want to check if innovative networks are really more efficient if they are local, and bring to the fore the conditions of this efficiency. This conditions seem to lie in the notion of proximity. Instead of considering geographic and organizational proximity as substitutes, we define them as complementary. So we propose a schedule of innovative networks linking geographic and organizational proximity. We shall test it in the biotechnology field, to build a typology of innovative networks. Key words: innovative networks, geographic and organizational proximity, biotechnology.

Geographical proximity and circulation of knowledge through inter-firm cooperation

The production of scientific and technological innovations has become essential for many firms, but the latter are seldom in possession of all the knowledge needed for this activity because of the increasing complexity of knowledge bases or because R&D departments are too small. As they do not possess internally all the skills they need, firms wishing to innovate have recourse to external sources, such as cooperation with other firms or public organizations of research. However, acquiring external knowledge is not sufficient; one must also be able to use it in a specific process of production, to transform it into organizational routines, because it is important not only to integrate this knowledge, but ideally to use it to produce new knowledge. This process of creation, re-creation or imitation of new resources not only necessitates several technical and organizational adaptations, but also requires frequent relations of cooperation and partnership. The integration of new knowledge cannot be done in one go, but progressively during the course of the innovation projects, which implies that relations be sustained for a period of time. But the interests of the participants to this interactive process, as well as their opinions concerning technical issues sometimes vary or diverge. This is why co-operations are also sources of tensions and conflicts that jeopardize the adaptation of knowledge produced somewhere else to the context of the firm or even completely hinder the innovation process. In this paper, we try to provide some answers to the following question: What is the role played by geographical and organized proximities in the context of these external acquisitions of knowledge? In other words, can they help reduce the intensity of conflicts and thus facilitate the interactive process of innovations? First, we present shortcomings of innovation theory and works on spillovers claiming the importance of geographical proximity for circulation of knowledge without considering organizational prerequisites to reach this impact. Having explained the relevance of permanent as well as temporary geographical proximity, we will then turn to a discussion of conflicts between cooperators within innovation processes from a theoretical as well as an empirical perspective. The empirical study is based on a case study of French biotechnology firms and will serve to prove our hypothesis that temporary geographical proximity play an important role in preventing and resolving conflicts between innovators.

Stock de carbone organique dans des sols de la région aride de Coquimbo (Chili) : Conséquences de l'intensité du pâturage sur des parcours par des chèvres

International audienceRésumé Les stocks de carbone organique ont été étudiés sous deux intensités de pâturage sur parcours par des chèvres et comparés à une situation témoin au sein de la station expérimentale de Las Cardas (région de Coquimbo, Chili). Les résultats montrent que sous pâturage d'intensité modérée (6 UPR ha-1 an-1), le stock de carbone organique de 0 à 100 cm de profondeur est peu affecté avec 24,3 à 29,3 Mg*ha-1 de carbone organique total contre 31,1 à 42,6 Mg*ha-1 sous végétation naturelle, ces stocks n'étant pas significativement différents (P=0,95) en raison de la variabilité des résultats entre les répétitions. En revanche, sous parcours d'intensité élevée (10 UPR ha-1 an-1), le stock de carbone organique n'est plus que de 10,2 à 15,5 Mg*ha-1. Enfin, dans ces milieux où il est particulièrement difficile d'étudier les stocks de carbone en raison de la charge souvent élevée en éléments grossiers, nos résultats indiquent qu'il est possible de prédire le stock total du carbone organique des sols à partir de la seule mesure du stock de carbone dans les 30 premiers centimètres (R2 = 0,89) avec un biais <0,1 Mg*ha-1 et une précision de 3,6 Mg*ha-1

Dynamic centriolar localization of Polo and Centrobin in early mitosis primes centrosome asymmetry

Centrosomes, the main microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) of metazoan cells, contain an older "mother" and a younger "daughter" centriole. Stem cells either inherit the mother or daughter-centriole-containing centrosome, providing a possible mechanism for biased delivery of cell fate determinants. However, the mechanisms regulating centrosome asymmetry and biased centrosome segregation are unclear. Using 3D-structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM) and live-cell imaging, we show in fly neural stem cells (neuroblasts) that the mitotic kinase Polo and its centriolar protein substrate Centrobin (Cnb) accumulate on the daughter centriole during mitosis, thereby generating molecularly distinct mother and daughter centrioles before interphase. Cnb's asymmetric localization, potentially involving a direct relocalization mechanism, is regulated by Polo-mediated phosphorylation, whereas Polo's daughter centriole enrichment requires both Wdr62 and Cnb. Based on optogenetic protein mislocalization experiments, we propose that the establishment of centriole asymmetry in mitosis primes biased interphase MTOC activity, necessary for correct spindle orientation

Neogene uplift of the Tian Shan Mountains observed in the magnetic record of the Jingou River section (northwest China)

The Tian Shan Mountains constitute central Asia's longest and highest mountain range. Understanding their Cenozoic uplift history thus bears on mountain building processes in general, and on how deformation has occurred under the influence of the India-Asia collision in particular. In order to help decipher the uplift history of the Tian Shan, we collected 970 samples for magnetostratigraphic analysis along a 4571-m-thick section at the Jingou River (Xinjiang Province, China). Stepwise alternating field and thermal demagnetization isolate a linear magnetization component that is interpreted as primary. From this component, a magnetostratigraphic column composed of 67 polarity chrons are correlated with the reference geomagnetic polarity timescale between ∼1 Ma and ∼23.6 Ma, with some uncertainty below ∼21 Ma. This correlation places precise temporal control on the Neogene stratigraphy of the southern Junggar Basin and provides evidence for two significant stepwise increases in sediment accumulation rate at ∼16–15 Ma and ∼11–10 Ma. Rock magnetic parameters also undergo important changes at ∼16–15 Ma and ∼11–10 Ma that correlate with changes in sedimentary depositional environments. Together with previous work, we conclude that growth history of the modern Tian Shan Mountains includes two pulses of uplift and erosion at ∼16–15 Ma and ∼11–10 Ma. Middle to upper Tertiary rocks around the Tian Shan record very young (<∼5 Ma) counterclockwise paleomagnetic rotations, on the order of 15° to 20°, which are interpreted as because of strain partitioning with a component of sinistral shear that localized rotations in the piedmont

Business travel and mobile workers

International audienceTransportation activity generated by businesses has been analyzed mainly with reference to freight flows and commuting trips. The area of employee business trips has been largely ignored, even though the literature – particularly that dealing with industrial economics – has endeavored to show both the central role played by face-to-face encounters in economic contact, and the decreased need for proximity as a prerequisite to such contact taking place in the first place. This paper takes this literature, both theoretical and empirical, as its base, and then aims to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the need for business travel and the profiles of mobile workers. It also investigates how the workers involved perceive, and how companies account for such mobility

A Model for the Development of the Rhizobial and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbioses in Legumes and Its Use to Understand the Roles of Ethylene in the Establishment of these two Symbioses

We propose a model depicting the development of nodulation and arbuscular mycorrhizae. Both processes are dissected into many steps, using Pisum sativum L. nodulation mutants as a guideline. For nodulation, we distinguish two main developmental programs, one epidermal and one cortical. Whereas Nod factors alone affect the cortical program, bacteria are required to trigger the epidermal events. We propose that the two programs of the rhizobial symbiosis evolved separately and that, over time, they came to function together. The distinction between these two programs does not exist for arbuscular mycorrhizae development despite events occurring in both root tissues. Mutations that affect both symbioses are restricted to the epidermal program. We propose here sites of action and potential roles for ethylene during the formation of the two symbioses with a specific hypothesis for nodule organogenesis. Assuming the epidermis does not make ethylene, the microsymbionts probably first encounter a regulatory level of ethylene at the epidermis–outermost cortical cell layer interface. Depending on the hormone concentrations there, infection will either progress or be blocked. In the former case, ethylene affects the cortex cytoskeleton, allowing reorganization that facilitates infection; in the latter case, ethylene acts on several enzymes that interfere with infection thread growth, causing it to abort. Throughout this review, the difficulty of generalizing the roles of ethylene is emphasized and numerous examples are given to demonstrate the diversity that exists in plants

Ensconsin/Map7 promotes microtubule growth and centrosome separation in Drosophila neural stem cells.

International audienceThe mitotic spindle is crucial to achieve segregation of sister chromatids. To identify new mitotic spindle assembly regulators, we isolated 855 microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) from Drosophila melanogaster mitotic or interphasic embryos. Using RNAi, we screened 96 poorly characterized genes in the Drosophila central nervous system to establish their possible role during spindle assembly. We found that Ensconsin/MAP7 mutant neuroblasts display shorter metaphase spindles, a defect caused by a reduced microtubule polymerization rate and enhanced by centrosome ablation. In agreement with a direct effect in regulating spindle length, Ensconsin overexpression triggered an increase in spindle length in S2 cells, whereas purified Ensconsin stimulated microtubule polymerization in vitro. Interestingly, ensc-null mutant flies also display defective centrosome separation and positioning during interphase, a phenotype also detected in kinesin-1 mutants. Collectively, our results suggest that Ensconsin cooperates with its binding partner Kinesin-1 during interphase to trigger centrosome separation. In addition, Ensconsin promotes microtubule polymerization during mitosis to control spindle length independent of Kinesin-1