家族、企業、そして法人 : 近世における泉屋住友の組織

The purpose of this article is to review organizational characteristics of Japanese berchant houses during the Tokugawa period(1600-1868), based on an examination of Izumiya-Sumitomo as a family, enterorise, and corporation. In particular I discuss the ideal of ubduvuded inheritance and single succession, the co-existence of managerial delegation and owner-control, and the cluster of autnomous and semi-independent branches tied to the main house by a moral code of allegiance. I further asses these features through an account of the Sumitomo house feudm which occurres in the second half of the eighteenth century. The findings suggest that joit management centering the pursuit of self-interest. The feud fuyther shed new light on the role of ownership, i.e., the function of the household head as nominal ower of the estate. Finally, the conflict can be considered a benchmark in the evolution toward a managerial enterprise with the household head as symbok of authority

Japan’s normative policy : coalition-building and pragmatism

For the past two decades, values and principles have played an important role in Japan’s foreign policy. Value-oriented diplomacy has served as a tool to strengthen the alliance with the US and cement stronger relations with other partners. Values have only gained in significance after the launch of the Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) concept in 2016. First, a shared normative basis is seen an important facilitator of cooperation and, for Japan, lies at the core of ‘tailored networking’ with partners in the Indo-Pacific. Second, in the context of competition with China, shared values are key in promoting principles such as the rule of law and freedom of navigation, in order to prevent any challenges to the current regional order. Third, they have an important legitimising role, both domestically and externally. At the same time, Japan is keenly aware that an all too strong emphasis on certain values can have an adverse effect. This has resulted in a focus on realism and national interest, but also a very pragmatic respect for different ways of thinking. The latter is imperative in particular in terms of paying more attention to the interests and views of emerging powers and developing countries in an increasingly post-western world

Japan, Europe and East Asian Regionalism

「日本研究」再考 : 北欧の実践からRethinking "Japanese Studies" from Practices in the Nordic Region, コペンハーゲン大学, 2012年8月22日-24

THE EU-JAPAN CONNECTIVITY PARTNERSHIP – ROADWAYS AND ROADBLOCKS

Connectivity, including infrastructure development (âhard connectivityâ) as well as regulatory measures, the digital field, people-to-people ties, etc. (Ê»soft connectivityâ), is increasingly becoming an area of great-power competition. A key driver has been Chinaâs Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large-scale project based on foreign investments and infrastructure development in third countries launched in 2014. This article zooms in on how the European Union and Japan have sought to propose an alternative model by creating a Partnership on Sustainable Connectivity and Quality Infrastructure in 2019. The article starts off by defining connectivity and elaborating on its link with geopolitics. It depicts connectivity as a theatre for both cooperation and competition, including by way of an analytical framework comprising six spheres and six logics. After sketching the synergies, complementarities and shared interests, the article surveys the EU-Japan partnershipâs progress on the ground. The concluding sections outline limitations and possible ways forward

Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) in the Age of Connectivity. EUC Asia-Europe Meeting 11, 1916

The Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) was launched in 1996 with an inaugural summit in Bangkok. Since then, the Summits have been held biennially, alternating between Asia and Europe. The 11th ASEM Summit which coincides with the 20th anniversary of ASEM will be hosted by Mongolia on 15-16 July 2016. To commemorate the 20th anniversary of ASEM, the European Union Centre in Singapore with the support of the Mongolian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has prepared this booklet on “Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) in the Age of Connectivity”. This booklet gives an analytical account of ASEM’s history and background, assesses ASEM’s developments and achievements since the inaugural summit, and provides some thoughts on the future of ASEM. With political commitment and imagination, ASEM can become a platform to generate new ideas for cooperation and strengthen Asia-Europe connectivity and partnership for a better world

Indiens ‘Orientering mod Øst’-politik

Bart Gaens og Olli Ruohomäki analyserer Indiens ‘Orientering mod Øst’-politik og landets søgen efter en plads i den strategiske orden, der er under udvikling i området

The Organization of Merchant Houses in TokugawaJapan - a Comparison with the Low Countries -

The goal of this study is to consider the organization of the most representative unit of business in Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600-1868), the merchant house, through a comparison with pre-industrial firms from the Low Countries, the present Belgium and Netherlands. It is accepted that Tokugawa Japan possessed a well-developed commercial economy. Business organization applied by merchants from the Low Countries ranked among the most advanced in sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe. In my dissertation the method of comparative history is applied in order to highlight the common characteristics and peculiarities in the organization of firms in early modem Europe and Japan. Previous historical studies on Japanese merchant houses and comparisons with Europe have concentrated, first, on organizational aspects of the ie as an early modem Japanese type of commercial concern; these works were aimed at seeking the origins of contemporary Japanese-style management, or at discovering characteristics of the joint-stock company such as incorporation, limited liability, perpetual succession, and personal separation of management and ownership in Tokugawa merchant houses. A second current of works has focused on the role of collectivism in ie-organization, and specifically its function in modernization, as opposed to the individualism characteristic for western development. A third group of previously conducted studies considered the position of the family in the firm: although in both Europe and Japan the institution of the family served to ensure the continuity of the business, in the West the firm was subordinate to family interests, while in Japan the opposite held true. In order to assess these suggestions and offer a modified view of the role of the ie-concept in the Tokugawa merchant class, I compare characteristics of Japanese commercial houses with prevailing forms of business organization in Europe. The present study focuses on the following three points. (1) Type of business enterprise or external organization; (2) configuration of leadership and representation or internal organization; and (3) continuity of the firm and the role of family, inheritance and succession. My dissertation centers on a number of case studies concerning representative Japanese merchant families having their origin in the beginning of the early modern period. The case of Mitsui can be considered an ideal type of merchant house organization and centralized family management. In order to get a more balanced view, I add other examples, such as Izumiya-Sumitomo, an enterprise ruled as one household or ie, and the Nakai conglomerate of merchant firms originating from the Omi region. The case of Izumiya in particular offers a valuable insight into the inner workings of a large-scale concern. In addition to scholarly publications by Yasuoka Shigeaki, Miyamoto Mataji, Nakase Toshikazu, Egashira Tsuneharu and others, I examine house codes and constitutions related to organization, succession and inheritance. As a third source of information on internal merchant organization, I make use of the Oshioki reiruishtt, a collection of Tokugawa juridical verdicts and punishments, in particular on the Izumiya house feud. I further utilize examples from representative mercantile firms which were based in the Low Countries and active in international trade with Italy and Spain such as the De Groote, the delta Faille and the Van Immerseel. In addition to some samples of company contracts and testaments gathered from the archives of the Antwerp Municipal Archives and Court of Bankruptcy (Insolvente Boedelskamer), I draw on the secondary works of Roland Baetens, Wilfiid Brulez, J. Everaert and Eddy Stols. An important supplementary source is the customary commercial law of the city of Antwerp, the so-called Costumen van Antwerpen, codified in 1582 and 1608. In the second chapter I examine common types of early modem business enterprise in Europe and Japan and argue that it is important to consider the one-man firm, the partnership and the participation technique as the principal patterns. In Europe, shareholding in other firms or participation (participatie) was integrated in the private enterprise as well as the partnership. It allowed an investor or secret partner to place his money in the hands of a trader or a firm and share in profits without risking to lose more than the invested amount. The increased appearance of lasting firms based on a company contract is characteristic for the early modem period. In Antwerp the company as a firm with (yet imperfect) juridical personality was codified in 1582: the formation of separate company capital in joint ownership led to the establishment of a compagnie (compaignie) or geselschap van handel. This type of enterprise remained the most commonly used form throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A comparison with Japan reveals parallels concerning the existence of similar types of commercial enterprise. The main business form was the individual proprietorship, the private family firm, since Japanese commercial organization revolved around the ie. However, in reality partnerships based on either kinship or geographical ties were formed and also the single proprietorship was often compose of an alliance of related families. Participation in money-lending ventures became fairly common during the second half of the Tokugawa period. The absence of the legally established principle of limited liability can be considered an important difference with Europe. Nevertheless, two modes of business organization seem to confirm the de facto existence of limited responsibility: first, the system of nominal ownership, which allowed branch firms to function as independent units; and second, the limited partnership-type of merchant house organization in which branch families (bekke) participated in the money-ending activities of the main house. These practices closely resemble methods applied in early modern European firms: the establishment of independent branches, and participation in large firms. However, in view of the lack of a judicial basis, the suggestion that large merchant houses embodied aspects of limited responsibility, needs to be corroborated by additional evidence. More illustrations are required to substantiate both legal consequences of noon shop ownership to liability, and the possible existence of internally agreed limited liability comparable to European modes of operation.The third chapter examines the internal organization of the unit of business. During Europe\u27s early modem period a shift occurred from the centralized, vertically organized firm to a decentralized, horizontally organized partnership. The former was usually headed by a pater familias, and relied on representation abroad by salaried factors, often sons or other kin, who were in charge of the local branches. Gradually more partnerships between equal partners were established. However, due to the expanded international business environment, independent subsidiaries and temporary agents working on commission (commissionairs) replaced the permanent representatives. The overall size of the firm decreased and a low degree of managerial delegation was characteristic. Management based on consultation was the contractual prerequisite, although in reality the associate who made the highest investment possessed the decisive say in management and functioned as the main coordinator of business. Also larger manufacturing enterprises, such as the Plantin-Moretus printing business, showed little separation betweenownership and control. In Japan, a reverse development can be observed in the expansion of the firm from the middle of the Tokugawa period onwards. The early separation between management and ownership and the extensive delegation of authority to salaried managers are often quoted as chief features of early modem Japanese business history. The institutionalization of consultation and the establishment of administrative bodies reduced the power of managers. On the basis of data provided by an examination of Sumitomo\u27s development, I describe how the coexistence of a high degree of managerial delegation and the preservation of control by the family members constituted a salient characteristic. The Izumiya feud further reveals the conflict between the ideal of ie-collectivism and joint-management on the one hand, and personal interests leading to the formation of opposing factions on the other. The fourth chapter studies the continuity of the enterprise and the role of the family, inheritance and succession in Europe and Japan. Scholarly works often juxtapose the "perpetual existence" of Japanese houses and the a priori limited continuance of European firms. The early modem European firm was characterized by short-term commitments; a lasting concern was actually a succession of several firms, with numerous contract renewals, new partners, and diverse investors. Unlimited liability of the associates in a partnership was a factor contributing to that periodic character. Normally the partnership ended with the death of an associate. Discontinuation of the firm before the end of the contractual period was not infrequently avoided through the appointment of a successor in testaments and company contracts, or the contractual provision that associates in the partnership could continue the legacy of the deceased for the benefit of the heirs. the tendency to prevent litigation was one interesting contractual clause that aimed at promoting continuity. Family firms offered more opportunities and incentives for reinvestment of capital and pursuit of continuity, since the social status of the family was directly linked to the prosperity of the firm. In the Low Countries inheritance usually implied a division of the family estate. Efforts were made, however, to ensure the continuance of the firm through a number of methods. One or more successors to the firm title could be assigned beforehand; the widow could succeed her husband as head of the business or as partner. Occasionally undivided inheritance was stipulated in the will. Nevertheless, it is more important to consider the family and kinship relations as a means to pool capital and promote loyalty. The business was an instrument to acquire personal profit and to elevate family status. In Japan, on the other hand, the ie, including the business, was supposed to endure forever. Tokugawa society offered few chances for social promotion, so the prosperity of the ie became a goal in itself. Constant reinvestment and specialization in one central business were characteristic. Inheritance was ideally canted out as one undivided whole and the house assets were governed with the principle of collective or joint ownership, of which the house of Mitsui is a representative example. Generally the heir to the position of household head, usually but not necessarily the eldest son, singly inherited the house assets and business at the time of his succession and became the nominal owner of the estate (katoku). Again the Izumiya-Sumitomo ie presents a rare case of disparity between succession (atoshiki sozoku), nominal transfer of the katoku as estate to the heir and actual managerial authority in the house business, after family and managers forced the head Kichizaemon to retire by an appeal to the magistrate. In the concluding chapter I argue that in Japan as well as in Europe development of business organization can be regarded as an evolution to rational management. In Europe this led to the formation of the corporation, and in Japan an expansion of the business aspect of the ie was the outcome. The Japanese ie as it existed in the merchant class was suited for business, in view of the easy capital formation and spread of risk, and even possessed certain characteristics of legal personality in se: a lasting existence and a large degree of separation between ownership andmanagement. Similarities between Japanese and European business organization concern mainly aspects of the enterprise form. The ie offered opportunities to unite trustworthy partners, join capital and diffuse risks. In Europe as well particular examples of lasting firms based on undivided business can be retrieved. On the other hand, it is misleading to put too much emphasis on the similarities between Europe and Japan, or to apply Western corporate characteristics to Tokugawa business. The Japanese merchant house faced inherent disadvantages. Limited liability could only be attained indirectly and did not have a legal foundation. Since the business was a tool to promote continuity of the ie as a whole, the owners were forced to take a long-term view and adopt conservative management policies. A further disadvantage was the ingrained possibility of conflict between management and family-owners. In contrast, the firm which originated in the Low Countries partially incorporated legally codified limited liability, but management was seldom delegated and the preservation and continuous application of capital in a lasting enterprise was problematic