Análisis comparativo de las relaciones entre China y América Latina, los casos de Chile y Venezuela

[ES] La creciente importancia de China está alterando el orden mundial y cuestionando la hegemonía de las grandes potencias occidentales. El país asiático ha experimentado una increíble evolución en los últimos treinta-cuarenta años, pasando de ser una economía cerrada y totalmente planificada por el Estado, a un sistema socialista de mercado, que ha sido también calificado como “socialismo con características chinas” o el “modelo chino”. Este proceso de reformas y apertura económica ha situado a la gran potencia asiática como la segunda economía del mundo en términos de PIB, y las previsiones apuntan a que podría superar a los EEUU en los próximos años. El papel de China en la economía global ha evolucionado crecientemente desde el inicio de su proceso de reformas en 1978, y actualmente juega un rol fundamental, en términos comerciales, de inversión y cooperación internacional. A pesar de que China sigue siendo considerado un país en desarrollo, y aún presenta multitud de desafíos internos, no cabe duda de que se ha convertido en un actor principal en el sistema mundial globalizado, en términos no sólo económicos, sino también geopolíticos. Desde finales de los 90, China ha intensificado sus relaciones con regiones en desarrollo, como África o América Latina, estrechando sus vínculos diplomáticos y promoviendo alianzas entre países del hemisferio sur. A pesar del énfasis puesto desde el país asiático en defender estos nexos de complementariedad y beneficio mutuo, lo cierto es que su interés en estas regiones se ha centrado principalmente en las materias primas. El impacto de China en Latinoamérica y el Caribe ha sido notable. Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela…, países ricos en recursos minerales y agrícolas han visto crecer rápidamente sus exportaciones al gigante asiático durante la última década, para satisfacer las necesidades chinas. China necesita importar grandes cantidades de materias primas para mantener su alto crecimiento económico, desarrollo industrial, y para abastecer las necesidades alimentarias, de su población, con una clase media cada vez más exigente y consumista. Este incremento de la demanda ha beneficiado a los países exportadores de commodities, que han visto como los precios mantuvieron una línea ascendente durante un largo periodo de tiempo. La influencia de China ha permitido a los países de la zona reducir su dependencia en EEUU y la UE. Además, el fuerte crecimiento económico de China, ayudó a contrarrestar los efectos de la gran crisis económica, minimizando la caída de la demanda desde EEUU y Europa y la bajada de precios durante esos años. Sin embargo, parece que el crecimiento de China, a pesar de mantenerse alto, se está ralentizando. El aumento de la demanda de commodities está decayendo y los precios bajando, lo que obviamente tiene un impacto negativo en Latinoamérica, región históricamente dependiente de las exportaciones de materias primas, aunque esta situación también puede abrir la puerta a buscar nuevas formas de cooperación más allá del comercio de bienes primarios. En el presente Trabajo, se estudiarán y compararán los casos de Chile y Venezuela, dos de los países cuyos vínculos con China son más intensos en la región. Las características propias de cada país (políticas, económicas, históricas y sociales) y los contrastes en sus tratos con China hacen particularmente interesante la comparación de estos dos casos. Las diferencias en las conexiones entre ambos países con China son variadas; en el caso de Chile, la relación es principalmente comercial, habiéndose intensificado desde la firma del Tratado de Libre Comercio en 2005, mientras que en el caso venezolano la presencia China es más intensa en forma de financiamiento y contratos de construcción, con ciertas particularidades. Sin embargo, tanto Chile como Venezuela comparten un rasgo en común: sus relaciones con China giran en torno a sus abundantes recursos naturales: el cobre y el petróleo respectivamente.[EN] The rising importance of China is tampering with the world order and challenging the hegemony of the major Western powers. China has experienced an incredible evolution in the last thirty to forty years, from being a closed and fully government-planned economy to a socialist market system, which has also been described as "socialism with Chinese characteristics" or the "Chinese model". The reform and opening-up process has placed China as the second largest economy in terms of GDP, and forecasts suggest that it could overtake the US in the coming years. China's role in the global economy has increasingly evolved since the beginning of its reform process in 1978, and it currently plays a key function in terms of trade, investment and international cooperation. Even though China is still considered a developing country with many domestic issues, there is no doubt it has become a major player in the globalized world system, not only in economic terms but also geopolitical. Since the late 90s, China has tightened its relations with developing regions such as Africa or Latin America, strengthening diplomatic ties and promoting South-South alliances. In spite of China’s emphasis on advocating the complementarity and mutual-benefit nature of the relations, the fact is that its interest in these regions focuses mainly on raw materials. The impact of China on Latin America and the Caribbean has been remarkable. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela... mineral-and-agricultural-rich countries have seen its exports to China increasing rapidly over the last decade. China needs to import large amounts of raw materials to keep its fast economic pace and industrial development, and to supply the food needed by its population, with an increasingly demanding-and-consumerist middle class. This increase in the demand has had a positive effect on commodities-exporting countries, which enjoyed an upward trend of prices for a long period of time. China's influence has enabled countries in the region to lower their dependence on the US and the EU. Also, the strong economic growth in China helped to offset the effects of the global economic crisis, lessening the demand drop from the US and Europe and the prices fall during those years. However, it seems that China's growth, though remaining high, is slowing down. The growth in demand for commodities is falling and so are the prices; a situation that obviously has a negative impact on Latin America, a region historically dependent on commodity exports. This critical scenario can, on the other hand, provide new opportunities and open the door to seek new forms of cooperation beyond commodities trade. In this Paper, the cases of Chile and Venezuela will be studied, two countries whose dealings with China are among the closest in the region. The political, economic, historical and social features of each country make this comparison particularly interesting. Both countries show different patterns in their connections with China. In the case of Chile, trade is the cornerstone of the bilateral relation and the FTA signed in 2005 the most evident proof of the strength of their economic ties, while in Venezuela the Chinese presence is better understood in terms of loans and construction contracts, with some particular characteristics. However, both Chile and Venezuela share a common feature: their relationships with China are mainly based on their abundant natural resources: copper and oil.Martínez Gómez, R. (2015). ANÁLISIS COMPARATIVO DE LAS RELACIONES ENTRE CHINA Y AMÉRICA LATINA LOS CASOS DE CHILE Y VENEZUELA. http://hdl.handle.net/10251/57231.Archivo delegad

An upper bound for the magnetic force gradient in graphite

Cervenka et al. have recently reported ferromagnetism along graphite steps. We present Magnetic Force microscopy (MFM) data showing that the signal along the steps is independent of an external magnetic field. Moreover, by combining Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) and MFM, we are able to separate the electrostatic and magnetic interactions along the steps obtaining an upper bound for the magnetic force gradient of about16 microN/m, a figure six times lower than the lowest theoretical bound reported by Cervenka et al. Our experiments suggest absence of MFM signal in graphite at room temperature.Comment: 14 pages, including supplemetary informatio

The history of Abies pinsapo during the Holocene in southern Spain, based on pedoanthracological analysis

The results of this research are part of the contract for Formacion de Profesorado Universitario (University Teacher Training) (Ref. 18/03023) financed by the Ministerio de Educacion del Gobierno de Espana (Ministry of Education of the Government of Spain), and research projects PALEOPINSAPO (CSO2017-83576-P), Med-Refugia (Ref. RTI2018-101714-B-I00), Oromed-Refugia (Ref. P18-RT-4963) and Relic-Flora 2 (Ref. B-RNM-404-UGR18), dependents on the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad del Gobierno de Espana y la Junta de Andalucia (Ministry of the Economy and Competitiveness of the Government of Spain and the Regional Government of Andalusia.The aim of this research is to reconstruct the ancient distribution area of Abies pinsapo Boiss. (Spanish fir) in the Serranía de Ronda region, southern Spain, during the Holocene. The main method was pedoanthracological analysis, the study of non-archaeological charcoal found in natural soils. In this research a total of 37 soil excavations were done in several mountain ranges with potentially favourable places for firs to have grown in the past. Specific sites and places such as hillsides, endorheic basins (with no outflow), sinkholes, summits and mountain passes were selected on the basis of evidence from a range of different sources including ancient documents, pollen studies and species distribution models. The soil samples collected from these sites were prepared in the laboratory and the charcoal was identified and radiocarbon dated. Statistical and cartographic analyses were also done. The study revealed evidence of past populations of Abies sp. in places where it is no longer found today. A total of 47 different chronologies were obtained from these sites with ages ranging between 9,931 cal bp and 78 cal bp. In addition, the wide variations in the charcoal values enabled us to make an initial estimate of the importance of ancient forest fires in different places in the Serranía de Ronda. When this information has been considered with all the other available data sources, it will be an essential resource for the efficient management of relict fir woods in southern Spain.Ministerio de Educacion del Gobierno de Espana (Ministry of Education of the Government of Spain) 18/03023dependents on the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad del Gobierno de Espana y la Junta de Andalucia (Ministry of the Economy) CSO2017-83576-P RTI2018-101714-B-I00 P18-RT-4963 B-RNM-404-UGR18Junta de AndaluciaCompetitiveness of the Government of Spai

Climate Preferences for Tourism: Perceptions Regarding Ideal and Unfavourable Conditions for Hiking in Spain

Physical activity is an increasingly frequent part of our leisure time. Within this context, hiking is a popular form of tourism which has a positive impact on the quality of life. In spite of the importance of climate conditions for this recreational activity, relatively little research has been done on hiking from the perspective of climate and tourism. With this in mind in this paper we make the first detailed extensive assessment of climate preferences for the practice of hiking tourism in Spain. To this end a review of the theoretical/methodological body of literature on tourism climatology was conducted together with a survey aimed at evaluating the stated climate preferences of hiking tourists. The results are offered within the framework of international research on climate preferences for a range of tourism activities. The comparative analysis of these results with regard to those obtained in previous research highlights various similarities but also certain factors specific to hiking in Spain. Overall, the climate preferences of hiking tourists are similar to those of other segments of the tourism market in terms of the aesthetic and physical aspects of the climate, although they also have certain specific preferences as regards thermal aspects, especially regarding the optimal daily thermal conditions for hiking. The results obtained are useful for assessing the suitability of the climate for the practice of hiking tourism in Spain and for promoting proper management and planning of this leisure activity in tourist destinations, including the development of climate calendars detailing the most suitable times of the year for hiking at these destinations. These issues will be addressed in future research studies

Paleopopulations and ecological connectivity in the Natura 2000 Network: proposal for the serpentine‑soil Spanish firs of Sierra Bermeja (Serranía de Ronda)

Funding for open access publishing: Universidad de Granada/ CBUA. This research has been supported by a contract for Univer- sity Teacher Training (Formación de Profesorado Universitario) (Ref. 18/03023) from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deportes del Gobierno de España), and research projects financed by the State Research Agency (SRA) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF): PALEOPINSAPO (CSO2017-83576-P), MED-REFUGIA (RTI2018-101714-B-I00) and TED2021-132631B-I00; Andalusian Plan for Research, Development and Innovation: Oromed-Refugia (P18-RT- 4963); and ERDF Opera- tional Programme in Andalusia (EU regional programme): ForestMed (A-RNM-688-UGR20).One of the conservation priorities of the Natura 2000 Network is the ecological connectivity of forests and species of com- munity interest to facilitate compliance with the obligations of the EU Habitats Directive. The location of paleo-populations and past distribution areas is a first step towards creating an ecological corridor which, with the protection enjoyed by Special Areas of Conservation, could positively impact the resilience of forest species in the face of Climate Change. The endangered relict forests of Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo) are endemic in the Serranía de Ronda (Baetic Cordillera, Southern Spain) and form a highly fragmented habitat of community interest. Amongst these forests, the Spanish fir forests that grow on serpentine soils are particularly interesting. This ultramafic mountain range has suffered the highest recurrence of forest fires in all the Serranía de Ronda, and as a result, the Spanish fir forests have been subject to processes of local extinction throughout history. In this research, we used pedoanthracology to uncover ancient locations of Abies pinsapo; in this way, forest fires are the main cause of the disappearance of this emblematic species in Sierra Bermeja, and their charcoal remains allowed us to make a precise reconstruction of its past distribution area. On the basis of the data obtained, an ecological corridor linking these relict forests was proposed. This corridor has now begun to be implemented with the participation of public and private social agents.Universidad de Granada/CBUASpanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (Ministerio de Educacion, Cultura y Deportes del Gobierno de Espana) 18/03023State Research Agency (SRA)European Regional Development Fund (ERDF): PALEOPINSAPO CSO2017-83576-PEuropean Regional Development Fund (ERDF): MED-REFUGIA RTI2018-101714-B-I00European Commission TED2021-132631B-I00Andalusian Plan for Research, Development and Innovation: Oromed-Refugia P18-RT- 4963ERDF Operational Programme in Andalusia (EU regional programme): ForestMed (A-RNM-688-UGR2

Las Vísperas Sicilianas. La llave del Mediterráneo

A lo largo de los siglos, la historia ha sido protagonista de numerosos ejemplos de levantamientos e insurrecciones que, sin embargo, en la gran mayoría de los casos no han dejado de ser simples anécdotas, siendo rápidamente controladas, reprimidas y olvidadas. Tal vez ése era el destino que se auguraba al levantamiento siciliano de 1282, no obstante, fue mucho más allá. El episodio de las Vísperas Sicilianas creó un nuevo equilibrio político y de fuerzas en aquel Mediterráneo de finales del siglo XIII, en donde la Corona de Aragón se erigía como la nueva potencia. El objetivo de este Trabajo de Fin de Grado es analizar los principales acontecimientos, y sus consecuencias, que derivaron de la intervención aragonesa tras las Vísperas Sicilianas

Climate Preferences for Tourism: Perceptions Regarding Ideal and Unfavourable Conditions for Hiking in Spain

Physical activity is an increasingly frequent part of our leisure time. Within this context, hiking is a popular form of tourism which has a positive impact on the quality of life. In spite of the importance of climate conditions for this recreational activity, relatively little research has been done on hiking from the perspective of climate and tourism. With this in mind in this paper we make the first detailed extensive assessment of climate preferences for the practice of hiking tourism in Spain. To this end a review of the theoretical/methodological body of literature on tourism climatology was conducted together with a survey aimed at evaluating the stated climate preferences of hiking tourists. The results are offered within the framework of international research on climate preferences for a range of tourism activities. The comparative analysis of these results with regard to those obtained in previous research highlights various similarities but also certain factors specific to hiking in Spain. Overall, the climate preferences of hiking tourists are similar to those of other segments of the tourism market in terms of the aesthetic and physical aspects of the climate, although they also have certain specific preferences as regards thermal aspects, especially regarding the optimal daily thermal conditions for hiking. The results obtained are useful for assessing the suitability of the climate for the practice of hiking tourism in Spain and for promoting proper management and planning of this leisure activity in tourist destinations, including the development of climate calendars detailing the most suitable times of the year for hiking at these destinations. These issues will be addressed in future research studies.This research has been conducted within the framework of the R+D+i project with reference number CSO2017-88935-R (funded as part of the Spanish National R&D&I Plan of the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad) and with the support of the research groups 2017 SGR 25 (Grup de Recerca Consolidat Territori, Turisme, Canvi Climàtic) and SEJ170 (Paisaje, Planificación Territorial y Desarrollo Local)

Free surface energy evaluation in the laser texturing of a carbon steel s275

Currently, the manufacture of hybrid structures of dissimilar materials is generating great interest. These allow to combine mechanical properties of different materials to achieve a higher functional performance. To obtain these structures, different joining technologies are used, especially the use of adhesives. Nevertheless, for the correct application of an adhesive, the surface of the metal to be bonded must be prepared. Laser texturing has become a widely studied technology for this purpose because it allows very defined textures to be obtained. This technology allows to activate the surface and improve the application of the adhesive afterwards. In that sense, hydrophilic surfaces are generated and evaluated by wettability tests to know the surface free energy obtained in the texturing. In order to improve the bonding of dissimilar materials in the form of hybrid structure, a study has been carried out on the laser texturing of a carbon steel S275 and the relationship between the texturing parameters with its surface activation through wettability and surface free energy tests. Thus, the energy density obtained by the combination of power and scanning speed allows the generation of very defined textures that increase the surface activation of the steel. This has made it possible to establish a mathematical relationship between the texturing parameters and the results obtained. © 2022 The Authors

Using context information to generate dynamic user interfaces

Proceedings of HCI International 2003, held in Crete (Greece) on June 2003This paper deals with the use of context information to generate dynamic user interfaces. Our framework is a real environment composed of a heterogeneous set of components. The nature of each component can range from a physical device to an abstract concept such as the number of persons in the environment. A middleware, that provides an unified environment model and communicates context changes, is used by two different modal interfaces. This allows to manage environment components without interfering each other

Europe's southernmost interglacial refugia as sentinels for the local extinction of mountain conifers

This research has been supported by a contract for University Teacher Training (Formación de Profesorado Universitario) (Ref. 18/03023) from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deportes del Gobierno de España), and research projects financed by the State Research Agency (SRA) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF): PALEOPINSAPO (CSO2017-83576-P), MED-REFUGIA (RTI2018-101714-B-I00) and TED2021-132631B-I00; Andalusian Plan for Research, Development and Innovation: Oromed-Refugia (P18-RT- 4963); and ERDF Opera- tional Programme in Andalusia (EU regional programme): ForestMed (A-RNM-688-UGR20).The Serrania de Ronda is an exceptional palaeoecological laboratory for studying the dynamics of vegetation over time, due to its strategic geographical location at a biogeographical crossroads and its proven historical legacy. Many of the mountains that form part of this territory are today practically deforested, such as Sierra Blanca, whose geographic location at the heart of the Serranía de Ronda means that it has enormous potential as a bio- geographical crossroads: the occasional presence of Abies pinsapo, Pinus pinaster and Quercus rotundifolia suggests that it was once covered by a mixed forest of conifers and broad-leaved trees. The lack of environmental research in Sierra Blanca has facilitated the installation of large quarries, which have led to its exclusion from the Sierra de las Nieves National Park, which was created in 2021. We applied the pedoanthracological methodology, which has enabled us to discover paleo-populations of A. pinsapo and Pinus sylvestris-type. The results confirm that co- niferous forests previously covered a much wider area during the Holocene. These findings reinforce the role of Sierra Blanca as a high-altitude refuge for conifers during the warm stages of the Holocene and as a sentinel for the local extinction of mountain conifers. This information could help improve its management and conservation.Spanish Government 18/03023State Research Agency (SRA)European Commission CSO2017-83576-P, RTI2018-101714-B-I00, TED2021-132631B-I00Andalusian Plan for Research, Development and Innovation P18-RT-4963ERDF Operational Programme in Andalusia (EU regional programme) A-RNM-688-UGR2