Resource-based conflicts in drought-prone Northwestern Kenya : the drivers and mitigation mechanisms

The theory of “resource scarcity” dominates the debate on “ecoviolence” in pastoral areas, where conflicts among communities have traditionally been linked to competition over scarce resources and invariably drought because of its role in resource depletion. However, the notion that climate change and resultant resource scarcity directly prompt violent conflict has been challenged by the notion that conflict actually coincide with periods of resource abundance. These contesting views point to nondeterministic linkage between resource availability and conflicts and, therefore, the complexity of pastoral conflicts. This is the scenario hypothesized for the vast pastoral areas of Kenya where violent conflict has become a chronic characteristic. While focusing on drought-induced conflicts over grazing resources, this paper takes cognizance of other factors that trigger and perpetuate violent conflicts in arid north-western Kenya. We present an insight on the nature, causes, dynamics and mitigation strategies of conflicts between the Turkana and Pokot pastoralists based on research study focusing on the linkages between resource availability and conflict. The findings suggest that violent conflicts in pastoral areas result from a myriad of socio-cultural, economic and political factors that reinforce one another by limiting availability of, depleting and reducing access to natural resource base. Competition for scarce natural resources triggered by frequent droughts and exacerbated by weak local institutions, proliferation of small firearms, political incitements, unclear property right regimes and cattle-raiding, was considered central to the violent conflicts observed in the area. The authors conclude that developing integrated policies and strengthening local governance institutions that are rooted in traditional practices for managing resources and inter-community conflicts is integral to the solution

Households’ perceptions on impact of drought on water resources in Makindu sub-county, Kenya

Drought is a major threat to water sources in the world. It causes variation in volumes of water flow. Once compounded with other factors, water scarcity arises. However, perceptions of households on the impact of drought on water sources vary from region to region. Understanding the perceptions of households is critical in ensuring people cope with water shortages. Thus, this paper sought to examine household’s perception on the impact of drought on water resources in Makindu Sub-County, Kenya. The study employed descriptive survey research design. A total of 370 households were sampled using simple random sampling. Purposive sampling was used to select the key informants. Questionnaires and key informants’ interview schedules were used to collect primary data. Data from questionnaires was coded and analyzed using SPSS Version 20. As perceived by the households’ drought led to drying up of water sources and further its impact varied from one drought intensity to another. The study also established that overuse by households, high rates of evaporation and encroachment of people to water sources were also affecting water sources. It was concluded that households should embrace adaptation and coping strategies to minimize water shortages. It is recommended that sensitization is required to equip individuals with knowledge to conserve water sources. The study provides new knowledge that is beneficial for water resource saving policy making, governance as well as for education at community and institutional levels.Keywords: Perceptions, drought, household

Collaborative autoethnography and reclaiming an African episteme: investigating “customary” ownership of natural resources

Collaborative autoethnography can function as a means of reclaiming certain African realities that have been co-opted by colonial epistemes and language. This can be significant in very concrete ways: northern Uganda is suffering a catastrophic loss of tree cover, much of which is taking place on the collective family landholdings that academia and the development sector have categorized as “customary land.” A collaboration by ten members of such landholding families, known as the Acholi Land Lab, explores what “customary ownership” means to them and their relatives, with a view to understanding what may be involved in promoting sustainable domestic use of natural resources, including trees

Phytoplankton distribution along a salinity gradient in two Kenyan saltworks (Tana and Kurawa)

The current study assessed the diversity and abundance of phytoplankton genera in two Kenyan saltworks (Tana and Kurawa) in March and September 2021. Water samples were obtained from ponds with salinities ranging from 30 to 200 ppt by filtering 40 l of water using a 20-μm phytoplankton net. Seventy-six genera of phytoplankton were identified. Genera richness, evenness and diversity decreased with increasing salinity while phytoplankton abundance increased with increasing salinity. Higher phytoplankton densities were observed in the Tana than in the Kurawa saltworks. Ponds of <100 ppt were dominated by Dinophyceae and Bacillariophyceae which accounted for >90 % of the phytoplankton community. Ponds of salinities >100 ppt were dominated by Cyanophyceae which accounted for >90 % of the phytoplankton community. From the results it was concluded that Kenyan saltworks host diverse phytoplankton genera whose richness decreases with increasing salinity and varies with seasons. The present data describes variation of phytoplankton assemblages in salt ponds between two selected seasons, but several samplings throughout the year would be more appropriate to describe variations of phytoplankton with season in these salt ponds

Resource use planning under climate change: experience from Turkana and Pokot pastoralists of Northwestern Kenya

There is a growing concern over access to dry season grazing pasture and water in the arid and drought prone areas of North-western Kenya, where pastoralist communities are constrained by poor access to basic services. This is being exacerbated by the effects of climate variability and climate change which have contributed to depletion of livestock-based livelihoods resulting to reduced mobility of livestock and thus disrupting the process of adjustment that maintains the balance between people, livestock and the environment. This paper present the experiences and lessons learned in resource use planning process amongst the Turkana and Pokot pastoralists with special focus on how to increase sustainable access pasture and water. The experiences documented were implemented within year one of the Drought Mitigation Initiative project. Land use plans and inter-community reciprocal grazing agreements were developed to include land rights and cross-boundary resource use. Constrains to resource use planning in the region were identified to include environmental, socio-economic, institutional and legal. Policy backed resource use planning as enshrined in the Draft National Land Policy is the most suitable approach to govern use of limited resources in the rangelands, and to negotiate over tenure, access and resources stewardship rights

The influence of water availability on pastoralist's resource use in Mwingi and Kitui districts in Kenya

Understanding where pastoral livestock grazing takes place and how water availability and distribution influences resource use, is critical in planning and management of arid and semi -arid lands. This study was carried out in Mwingi and Kitui districts in Eastern Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection for five months. Watering points were established through cluster sampling by considering each administrative sub- location with the help of topographical maps. Three ethnic communities, namely ,the Akamba, Oroma and Somali, utilize resources in the area. The distribution of dry season water in the area influence the distances livestock herds traveled from their homelands. There was a significant difference between number of wells and the number of households, with an overall mean number of five to eight households per well. The population of goats and camels was highest for the area, and that they walked longer and their watering frequency was low. However, diseases, predators and frequent droughts occasioned animal’s losses, with goats having the highest death (6.0%) and birth (44.8%) rates. The dry season water availability may explain why livestock routes changed over the seasons and highlight the importance and ubiquity of common utilization of the range by these communities. Therefore, common rights of access prevail, although the control and organization of shallow wells is the responsibility of the Akamba ‘well owner’. Water constraints and property right issues in the study area limit exploitation of the resources for livestock production. This paper highlights the need to integrate water development and improved livestock management in the arid and semi- arid areas to reduce poverty

Metagenomics survey unravels diversity of biogas microbiomes with potential to enhance productivity in Kenya.

The obstacle to optimal utilization of biogas technology is poor understanding of biogas microbiomes diversities over a wide geographical coverage. We performed random shotgun sequencing on twelve environmental samples. Randomized complete block design was utilized to assign the twelve treatments to four blocks, within eastern and central regions of Kenya. We obtained 42 million paired-end reads that were annotated against sixteen reference databases using two ENVO ontologies, prior to β-diversity studies. We identified 37 phyla, 65 classes and 132 orders. Bacteria dominated and comprised 28 phyla, 42 classes and 92 orders, conveying substrate's versatility in the treatments. Though, Fungi and Archaea comprised 5 phyla, the Fungi were richer; suggesting the importance of hydrolysis and fermentation in biogas production. High β-diversity within the taxa was largely linked to communities' metabolic capabilities. Clostridiales and Bacteroidales, the most prevalent guilds, metabolize organic macromolecules. The identified Cytophagales, Alteromonadales, Flavobacteriales, Fusobacteriales, Deferribacterales, Elusimicrobiales, Chlamydiales, Synergistales to mention but few, also catabolize macromolecules into smaller substrates to conserve energy. Furthermore, δ-Proteobacteria, Gloeobacteria and Clostridia affiliates syntrophically regulate PH2 and reduce metal to provide reducing equivalents. Methanomicrobiales and other Methanomicrobia species were the most prevalence Archaea, converting formate, CO2(g), acetate and methylated substrates into CH4(g). Thermococci, Thermoplasmata and Thermoprotei were among the sulfur and other metal reducing Archaea that contributed to redox balancing and other metabolism within treatments. Eukaryotes, mainly fungi were the least abundant guild, comprising largely Ascomycota and Basidiomycota species. Chytridiomycetes, Blastocladiomycetes and Mortierellomycetes were among the rare species, suggesting their metabolic and substrates limitations. Generally, we observed that environmental and treatment perturbations influenced communities' abundance, β-diversity and reactor performance largely through stochastic effect. Understanding diversity of biogas microbiomes over wide environmental variables and its' productivity provided insights into better management strategies that ameliorate biochemical limitations to effective biogas production