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Phoronidea from Brazil

1. The demarcation of the species of Phoronidea is difficult because of the great variability of the characters which does not enable the fixing of good differential characters yet. The studies of populations and of life-histories must be undertaken to allow an accurate systematic definition. Within the family Phoronidae, generally considered as composed of only one genus, Phoronis, groups of very divergent species can be distinguished, which must perhaps be considered as genera or at least sub-genera. Owing to the inter gradation of the specific characters within such groups, it is not possible to know if they really represent species of form minor specific units. I. Phoronis hippocrepia Wright 1856 - from Santos, Cananéia and Ubatuba; in the first locality boring in oyster shells; in the second non-boring specimens; and in the third only larvae. a) Phoronis (Figs. 1-33) - The single nephrostome is the main characteristic of the specimens; through the interruption of the lateral mesentery at the level of the nephrostome the communication between the anal and oral cavities is assured. Longitudinal muscle bundles 26-30 in number, arranged according to the formula: ; marginal fibres, three to five in number, on each side of the bundle. Giant fibres of variable diameter: 4.7 to 7.0 microns, the right one, and 3.6 to 10.0 microns, the left. Blood corpuscles from 6.4 to 9.6 microns in diameter. Lophophoral organs also present in specimens with embryos in the tentacular crown. Simultaneous hermaphrodite, at least the specimens from Santos. Eggs: 100 microns. Spermatozoa: 20 microns, with vesicular head. Seven to eight pairs of chromosomes. b) Actinotrocha (Figs. 34-55 )- Primordium of metasoma appears in the larva with one pair of tentacles; peri-anal ciliated ring is present in the larva with four tentacles in which the anlage of the blood-corpuscle mass appears. Ganglion already developed in this larva. Metasoma of the four-tentacle larva forms a small invagination. Nephridia are not terminal any more. Rare glands present in the hood epithelium. In the larva with six tentacles the metasoma forms an ample sac; the primordium of the lophophore coelom appears. Stomach diverticulum absent or single without vacuolization. Nephridia open laterally to the metasoma aperture. In the advanced larva (eight to 10 tentacles) the metasoma forms a series of folds; its longitudinal muscles are differentiated into bundles; a large ventral mass of blood corpuscles is present ventral to the eosophagus and a few corpuscles are grouped on each side at the insertion level of the ventral tentacles. Lophophore coelom well developed; dorsal vessel present; a pair of ventral muscles in the trunk. On the dorsal surface of the hood there is an accumulation of gland cells perhaps the sensory organ. During metamorphosis the evaginated metasoma shows longitudinal muscle bundles. Larval tentacles degenerate. Afferent and efferent vessels are already formed. c) The following observations were made: Maximum survival in aquarium: one year; observed breeding season: July to March; duration of individual reproduction: over 15 days; development: egg to young larva - four days; pelagic perid - 9 to 12 days; metamorphosis - two hours. Irregular blood circulation, with about 10 pulsations per minute (temperature of 24ºC). Food: mostly diatoms, also protozoans and detritus. Not necessarily a boring species. The occurrence in aggregations seems accidental. Maximum of 12 embryos in the brood-pouch. The larvae become free with four tentacles and, exceptionally, in aquarium, shortly before metamorphosis. Swim in more or less large circles, diving often; shortly before metamorphosis, swim on the bottom. Metamorphosis was obtained even without special substratum. Eurythermic species (temperatures from 16 to 27ºC) endures salinities from 30.63 to 37.38 . II. Phoronis ovalis Wright 1856 (Figs. 56-63) - from Santos, in oyster shells. A single median lophophoral organ (Figs. 62, l; 63, b) ; three to four marginal fibres along each side of the longitudinal muscle bundle; two giant fibres 2.5 microns in diameter (Fig. 61, k), not always noticed. Lower lip of the nephridial funnel short or long, prolonged downwards. Larva observed in March. III. a) Actinotrocha bella (new technical name) - from plankton collected off the northeast coast of Brazil. Stage with 18 to 22 tentacles (Fig. 64 A, B) - Metasoma present as a small tube; no mass of blood corpuscles, sensory organ and dorsal vessel. Peri-anal ciliated ring developed. A pair of retractors in the hood; a single diverticulum, vacuolated; nephridia placed above the septum, open laterally the aperture of the metasoma. Stage with 24 tentacles (Fig. 71 A) - Definitive tentacles absent. Stomach diverticulum single. Metasoma represented by a small invagination. Nephridium constituted by a large nephridial canal. Subepithelial muscle layer present. No mass of blood corpuscles and sensory organ. Narrow body cavity. Stage with 38 tentacles (Fig. 71, B, B1) - Definitive tentacles absent. A large blood sinus (Fig. 76, d) ventral to the oesophagus, extending laterally to the mouth; on the lower side it stretches out along the ventral part of the diverticulum (Fig. 77, d) ending near the nephridial canal (Fig. 78, h). Sensory organ (Fig. 83, c) consists of accumulations of basophilous gland cells and a nerve deeply placed. Dorsal vessel (Fig. 79, p) and caecal vessels (l) developed. Metasoma with longitudinal muscles differentiated into bundles (Fig. 79, n). A pair of dorsal retractors in the hood (Figs. 76, 77, b). Two pairs of ventral muscles in the trunk. Peri-anal ciliated ring developed and undulated (Fig. 81). These advanced larvae were related to the young larvae mentioned above by similarities of structure. Only their rearing will enable to confirm they belong to the same ontogenetic sequence. b) Actinotrocha chata n. t. n. (Fig. 90) - This young larva with 16 tentacles was found in plankton from Ubatuba. The metasoma presents itself in the stage of an epithelial thickening; no mass of blood corpuscles and sensory organ; ganglion present. It is probable that this larva represents a young A. wilsoni B with delayed development. c) Actinotrocha wilsoni B - Larva distributed in the coastal waters of Ubatuba (100 km to the NE of Santos) towards the South down to lat. 28º00'S, off Lagoa Mangueira (State of Rio Grande do Sul) ; it is also found in the inlet waters of Cananéia and Paranaguá. Occurs July to February, maximum in October. Euryhaline; it was found at temperatures from 18.5 about 27.0ºC. Larva with eight to 10 tentacles has no metasoma, no diverticulum, no mass of blood corpuscles; terminal nephridia open above the anus. In the 12-tentacle stage the metasoma appears as a thickening. In the stage with 16 to 18 tentacles the ventral pair of blood corpuscle masses appears. Nephridia then open laterally to the metasoma orifice. Metasoma represented by a small tube. The dorsal pair of blood corpuscle masses appears in the larva with 22 tentacles. Usually the definitive tentacles appear in the 22-tentacle larva. They reach a maximum of 26, the maximum of definitive ones being 20. In the mature larva the sensory organ is present (Fig. 118). Stomach diverticulum may be absent, paired or single, rarely vacuolated. Longitudinal muscles of the metasoma are differentiated into bundles. Anomalous metamorphosis may occur in the plankton. Larval tentacles are cast off shortly before metamorphosis. The pairs of blood corpuscle masses conjoin during metamorphosis. The evaginated metasoma showed 48 longitudinal muscle bundles and one nerve. The developed larva is transparent, with orange pigment; it swims on the bottom of the recipient in large circles, resting sometimes in an inverted position; the tentacles are a swimming aid, standing aloof from the body. The developed larvae are identical with Actinotrocha wilsoni B, whose young stages are not known. The present young stages described from plankton, were related to A. ivilsoni B, but only their rearing will confirm that they represent the ontogenetic stages of this larva.Phoronis hippocrepia Wright de Santos, Cananéia e Ubatuba, vive no eulitoral, na zona de máxima vasante, perfurando conchas de ostra ou sobre fauna que recobre rochas. Hermafrodita simultânea, com fecundação precoce interna. A eliminação dos corpúsculos polares dá-se na câmara incubadora. Larvas aí se desenvolvem até o estádio de 4 tentáculos, excepcionalmente até o de 8 tentáculos. As seguintes observações foram feitas: máximo de sobrevivência em aquário: 1 ano; época de reprodução: julho a março; duração da reprodução individual: mais de 15 dias; desenvolvimento: do ôvo à larva jovem - 4 dias; em natação livre - 9 a 12 dias; metamorfose - 2 horas. Máximo de 12 embriões na câmara incubadora. O adulto, quase imóvel, é muito sensível quando recém-coletado; perde parte da sensibilidade quando no aquário. Circulação sanguínea irregular, com cerca de 10 pulsações por minuto. Alimentação: principalmente diatomáceas; também protozoários. Espécie não necessariamente cavadora. A ocorrência em agregados parece acidental. Larva nada em círculos, subindo à superfície e mergulhando em seguida; perto da metamorfose, nada no fundo. Espécie euritérmica (temperaturas de 16 a 27ºC), suporta salinidades de 30,63 a 37,38 . Phoronis ovalis Wright observada em Santos no mesmo biótopo de P. hippocrepia. As descrições anteriores acrescenta-se: órgão lofoforal mediano, Impar; fibras gigantes pares, 2,5 micra de diâmetro, nem sempre conspícuas; fibras marginais e centrais presentes em cada feixe muscular longitudinal; nefróstoma pequeno com sua parede inferior curta ou prolongada para baixo. A larva aberrante foi reconhecida dentro de pequenos tubos chitinosos, em março. Actinotrocha bella (nome técnico novo) do plancton coletado ao largo da cidade de São Luís (E. do Maranhão) mostra, no máximo estádio obtido, 30 tentáculos larvais; os tentáculos definitivos são ausentes. Grande seio sanguíneo anterior. Divertículo impar do estômago. Metasoma desenvolvido, com musculatura longitudinal diferenciada em feixes. Órgão sensorial presente, constituído por uma acumulação de células glandulares basófilas. Retratores no capuz e no tronco. Vaso dorsal e lateral bem como capilares desenvolvidos. Camada muscular subepitelial presente. Actinotrocha chata (nome técnico novo) do plancton de Ubatuba, refere-se a uma larva jovem com 16 tentáculos, que pode representar uma A. wilsoni B com desenvolvimento retardado. Actinotrocha wilsoni B (nome técnico) das águas costeiras de Ubatuba para o sul até 34º41,5'S (altura da Lagoa Mangueira), e águas interiores de Cananéia e Paranaguá. No máximo estádio de desenvolvimento possui 26 tentáculos larvais e até 20 definitivos; estes dispõem-se em duas séries, uma de cada lado, sob os larvais. A larva é caracterizada pelas quatro massas de glóbulos sanguíneos que se fundem na metamorfose. Próximo da metamorfose os tentáculos larvais degeneram, permanecendo apenas os definitivos. O capuz começa a desintegrar-se 15 minutos após o início da evaginação do metasoma. Metamorfose no plancton ocorre, mas de modo anormal. Larva encontrada de julho a fevereiro com máximo em outubro. O adulto desconhecido, possui 48 feixes musculares longitudinais e uma única fibra gigante

Natural sequence variation as a tool to dissect gene expression regulation in Drosophila melanogaster

Genetic variation is a major cause of differences between individuals and it represents a powerful tool to study gene regulation. By interfering with cis- Regulatory Modules (CRMs), variants can unravel CRM function. On the other hand, predicting the effect of variants on phenotype by the DNA sequence has proven to be challenging. In this thesis, I use Drosophila embryonic development as a model system to study diversity in gene regulation at the transcriptional level. CRMs can be characterized using multiple genome-wide techniques such as DNase hypersensitivity. However, despite having comprehensive CRM maps, it is still difficult to predict what are the genes regulated by each CRM. Functional methods, such as mutagenesis, are effective but poorly scalable. To address this issue, I developed an eQTL method (called DHS-eQTL) that makes use of naturally occurring genetic variation, to associate CRMs with the genes they regulate. The results reveal 2,967 DHS-eQTLs and indicate a high extent of CRM sharing between genes. We validated the results with in silico and in vitro approaches and I discuss upcoming in vivo experiments. We observed long-range enhancer regulation suggesting that commonly used methods to associate genes and enhancers underestimate their distance. Also, the DHS-eQTLs show that promoter-proximal CRMs have widespread distal activity. The separation between populations causes an increase in genetic differences by drift and adaptation to different environments. We investigated gene expression differences between Drosophila populations from five continents by performing RNA-Seq on 80 inbred fly lines. We performed multiple quality-control tests to ensure that the gene expression dataset is of high quality. Gene expression profiles show detectable diversity among the fly lines from different continents and confirm what has been observed at the genetic level. In particular, the African population is the most separated, while the American, European and Australian ones show less diversity. In addition, we identified 903 gene and 2,021 exon eQTLs. Genetic variants can interfere with Transcription Factor Binding Sites (TFBS) and this might, in turn, lead to changes in chromatin accessibility. We applied LS-GKM (an SVM method that uses gapped k-mers) to learn sequence features of tissue-specific accessible chromatin and predict the impact of natural sequence variation on accessibility. We train LS-GKM on six tissue-specific training sets: neuroectodermal, mesodermal and double negative CRMs divided in promoter-proximal and promoter-distal. The method unbiasedly recovers tissue-specific TFBS and shows good performance despite the small training sets. Finally, we score variants from groups of inbred Drosophila lines. Interestingly, rare variants have a higher impact on accessibility

Appendicularian species groups and southern Brazil water masses

The distribution of 19 species of appendicularia sorted out of a series of plankton samples taken between Cabo Frio (lat. 23º S) and Rio Grande do Sul (lat. 36º S) is discussed in relation to temperature and salinity. Most species showed a wide spectrum of temperature and salinity tolerance. No species was found to be exclusive of a single water mass. Eleven species were present in coastal waters, 16 in shelf waters and 13 in tropical waters. Ten species were found in the three water masses. Oikopleura longicauda was the most abundant species and O. dimca was found only over the shelf. Species of the genus Fritillaria were more sensitive to lower salinities and in a general way the number of species decreases coastalwards. Different groups of species were present in the same water mass and conversely similar groups occurred in different water masses. Five, eight and nineteen different groups of species occurred exclusively in shelf, coastal and tropical waters respectively. There was suggested the occurrence of stratified distribution and consequently the presence of different ecological niches within a single water mass. Several species probably reproduce more than once, most species are proterandric. Parasites and predators are mentioned. It is suggested that the knowledge of the past history of the water mass and its biological dynamics are more important for the interpretation of the distribution of the appendicularian fauna than temperature and salinity factors alone.Os tipos de distribuição dos organismos do plancton são resultado de urna complexa interação de fatores bióticos e abióticos. A distribuição diferencial das espécies de apendiculárias foi analisada em relação aos fatores do ambiente, temperatura e salinidade. Os resultados sugerem que as propriedades físicas analisadas são menos importantes para explicar as distribuições observadas do que o conhecimento da história e dinâmica biológica das massas de água. A área estudada, estendendo-se de Cabo Frio ao Rio Grande do Sul, representa uma zona de transição caracterizada por processos de mistura e instabilidade com altos gradientes, especialmente de temperatura e salinidade. Ocorreram apenas massas de água modificadas ou misturadas com perdas de suas características iniciais e reflexos em seus esteno-elementos. A maioria das espécies de apendiculária mostrou forte euritermia e eurihalinidade. Elementos oligotérmicos e endêmicos estiveram ausentes. Nenhuma das espécies abundantes restringiu-se a apenas uma massa de água. Um total de 19 espécies foi encontrado no presente estudo. Onze espécies foram encontradas nas águas costeiras, 16 nas de plataforma e 13 nas águas tropicais. Dez espécies foram comuns aos três tipos de água. Oikopleura longicauda foi a espécie mais freqüente, ocorrendo em quase todas as amostras. Oikopleura dioica restringiu-se à plataforma. Houve evidência de populações exclusivas de zona temperada, especialmente em espécies costeiras. A região de Florianópolis revelou ser centro reprodutivo para algumas espécies. O número de espécies decresceu em direção à costa e flutuou consideravelmente nas águas tropical e de plataforma. A preferência do ambiente para os diferentes gêneros foi dúbia. Fritillarias foram mais sensíveis à diluição. Houve evidência de distribuição estratificada e sugere-se a presença de diferentes espaços ecológicos numa mesma massa de água. Grupos diversos de espécies estiveram presentes em massas de água com as mesmas propriedades de temperatura e salinidade e massas de água fisicamente diferentes apresentaram grupos iguais. Oito diferentes grupos de espécies foram exclusivos das águas costeiras, 19 exclusivos das águas tropicais e 5 de águas de plataforma. Sete grupos ocorreram em mais de uma massa de água. Certas espécies mostraram plasticidade morfológica. Os dados sugerem que indivíduos de certas espécies reproduzem-se mais de uma vez antes da morte. Foi evidenciado um alto grau de processos degenerativos associados à reprodução. Fritillaria pellucida e F. borealis são protândricos e F. haplostoma é hermafrodita protogínico. Ocorreram fantasmas, caudas livres bem como nó digestivo isolado. Epiparasitas estiveram presentes na cauda de O. longicauda procedente de águas misturadas. Medusas, acela, copépodos, ostrácoda, quetognata predam as apendiculárias e especialmente animais maduros servem de alimento. Foi observado um ritmo diurno em abundância de espécimes na superfície

Political risk: Not just the investor’s affair

Assessing, managing and minimizing political risk is a key component in investment decisions. Given that many factors of political risk are within the control of governments, this Perspective proposes specific actions countries should take to make minimizing political risks a central part of their investment promotion strategy

Reflections on the Implementation of TPSR Programming With At-Risk-Youth in the City of Ottawa, Canada

The decline in youth physical activity levels has been a topic of increasing interest in the media and research in recent years (World Health Organization, 2004; Salmon, Booth, Phongsavan, Murphy, & Timpiero, 2007). As a result there has been a call for increased programming, particularly after-school and community-based programming (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2011; World Health Organization, 2004). The Teaching Personal Social Responsibility (TPSR) program framework developed by Don Hellison has become influential in the development of programs designed to facilitate youth development through sport and physical activity, particularly for vulnerable or at-risk youth (Hellison, 1995; Hellsion & Walsh, 2002). This article will discuss the opportunities and challenges in implementing TPSR-based physical activity programming with the express intention of developing socially responsible and physically active youth. More specifically, we will explain how the program evolved over time and the experience of implementing the programin various contexts.La disminución en la actividad física de los jóvenes ha sido un tema de creciente interés en los medios de comunicación y en la investigación de los últimos años (Organización Mundial de la Salud, 2004; Salmon, Booth, Phongsavan, Murphy, y Timpiero, 2007). Como resultado, ha habido una creciente demanda de programas, en especial programas extra-escolares y comunitarios (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2011; Organización Mundial de la Salud, 2004). El marco del programa Enseñando Responsabilidad Personal Social (Teaching Personal Social Responsibility (TPSR)) elaborado por Don Hellison, se ha convertido en una influencia en la elaboración de programas diseñados para facilitar el desarrollo de la juventud a través del deporte y la actividad física, especialmente para los jóvenes vulnerables o en situación de riesgo (Hellison, 1995; Hellsion yWalsh, 2002). En este artículo, se discutirán las oportunidades y los desafíos en la implementación de programas de actividad física basado en TPSR con el objetivo explícito de desarrollar una juventud socialmente responsable y físicamente activa. En concreto, vamos a discutir el proceso de desarrollo e implementación de estos programas; desde el establecimiento de una relación con una organización comunitaria juvenil a la obtención de fondos y los desafíos en la implementación, mientras se garantiza el marco de los programas y la realización de la investigación comunitari

Using a time-series analysis to evaluate a female youth-driven physical activity-based life skills program based on the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility model

The Girls Just Wanna Have Fun program is a physical activity-based life skills program that was developed in response to the highlighted need to increase levels of physical activity in female youth and is based on the TPSR model (Hellison, 1995). The purpose of this research was to examine how well the implementation of the program adhered to the five levels of the TPSR model using a time series analysis. Participants and leaders completed evaluations of the five TPSR levels at the end of each session. The youth also completed the Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire at the beginning and end of the program. Results indicated that participants’ self-ratings of the five TPSR levels varied based on type of life skill and physical activity of each program session, but overall showed a gradual upward trend throughout the program. Dependent t-tests revealed a significant difference for leadership from the start to the end of the program. This research aids in understanding the process in which youth development programs, specifically those utilizing the TPSR model, can be effectively implemented. Practical recommendations for future programming are discussed.Girls Just Wanna Have Fun es un programa de habilidades para la vida mediante la actividad física basado en el modelo TPSR (Hellison, 1995) que se desarrolló para responder a la necesidad de aumentar los niveles de actividad física de las mujeres jóvenes. El propósito de esta investigación fue examinar, utilizando un análisis de series de tiempo, la implementación del programa en relación con los cinco niveles del modelo TPSR. Los participantes y los líderes completaron las evaluaciones de los cinco niveles TPSR al final de cada sesión. Las jóvenes realizaron también el cuestionario de Responsabilidad Personal y Social al inicio y al final del programa. Los resultados indican que las autoevaluaciones de los participantes en los cinco niveles TPSR variaron en función del tipo de habilidades para la vida y de la actividad física de cada sesión; aunque, en general, mostraron una tendencia gradual al alza durante todo el programa. Pruebas t dependientes revelaron diferencias significativas entre el principio y el final del programa en lo concerniente al liderazgo. Este estudio ayuda a comprender mejor los procesos de aplicación efectiva de los programas de desarrollo de la juventud, especialmente los que utilizan el modelo TPSR. Finalmente, se discuten también recomendaciones prácticas para la realización de programaciones futuras