Revelando as causas e a distribuição temporal da mortalidade arbórea em uma floresta de terra-firme na Amazônia Central

We analyzed the causes and temporal distribution of tree mortality in 10 ha of an old growth forest located in E.E.S.T / INPA, Manaus, Amazonas. The study aimed to 1) reveal the main causes of tree death and 2) describe the variation in mortality over the year and also correlates it with climatic variables. The study was conducted in two transects of 20 x 2,500 m (5 ha each) and all individuals with DBH ≥ 10 cm were sampled, totaling 5,808 trees. The transects were monitored every month, alternately, for a year. The sanitary condition of living trees was observed in each monitoring. The dead individuals were classified according to their mode of death (standing, broken or uprooted). The pre and post-death of the trees were analyzed in order to identify the cause of the death. During one year of monitoring, 67 individuals died or 6.7 trees / ha and the mortality rate was 1.15%. year-1. Of the 67 dead trees, 24 died uprooted, 23 broken and 20 standing dead. Mortality was highly correlated with the rates of monthly rainfall (r = 0.85). Therefore, the events of death are more frequent in the rainy season. The correlation between mortality and wind speed was not as strong as expected (r = - 0.29) and the direction of the individuals fall was random. Altogether were distinguished six categories of cause of tree death. Storms (rain + wind) was the main cause, accounting for 45% of deaths. Close behind was stress and biotic factors, killing 20 of the 67 dead individuals. Of these 20 trees, at least one was killed by liana Apuí and 3 died from infestation by pathogenic fungi. The results indicate that from the small intervals between monitoring is possible to determine the cause of trees death in tropical forests and elucidate the effect of seasonal variations on mortality. The work has generated new information to the Amazon and it is suggested that these studies are included in the projects of forest dynamics.Foi analisado as causas e a distribuição temporal da mortalidade arbórea em 10 ha de floresta não perturbada localizada na E.E.S.T/INPA, Manaus, Amazonas. O estudo teve como objetivo 1) revelar as principais causas da morte arbórea e 2) descrever a variação da mortalidade ao longo do ano além de correlaciona-la com variáveis climáticas. O trabalho foi conduzido em dois transectos de 20 x 2.500m (5 ha cada) e todos os indivíduos arbóreos com DAP ≥ 10cm foram amostrados, somando 5.808 árvores. Os transectos foram monitorados todos os meses durante um ano de forma alternada. O estado fitossanitário das árvores vivas foi observado em cada uma das medições. Os indivíduos mortos foram classificados de acordo com seu modo de morte (em pé, quebrado ou desenraizado). As condições pré e pós-morte das árvores foram analisadas com a finalidade de se identificar a causa da sua morte. Durante um ano de monitoramento, morreram 67 indivíduos ou 6,7 árvores/ha e a taxa de mortalidade calculada foi de 1,15%.ano-1. Das 67 árvores mortas, 24 morreram desenraizadas, 23 mortas em pé e 20 mortas quebradas. A mortalidade foi altamente correlacionada com as taxas de precipitação mensal (r = 0,85). Portanto, os eventos de morte são mais frequentes na estação chuvosa. A correlação entre mortalidade e velocidade máxima mensal do vento foi fraca e negativa (r = -0,3) e a direção de queda dos indivíduos foi aleatória. Ao todo se determinou seis categorias de causa de morte arbórea. As tempestades (chuva + vento) foram a principal causa, responsável por 45% das mortes. Logo atrás das tempestades veio a causa estresse e fatores bióticos, matando 20 dos 67 indivíduos mortos. Dessas 20 árvores, pelo menos uma foi morta por cipó Apuí e 3 morreram por infestação de fungos patogênicos. Os resultados indicam que a partir dos pequenos intervalos entre as remedições é possível determinar as causas de morte arbórea nas florestas tropicais, além de elucidar o efeito das variações sazonais sobre a mortalidade. O trabalho gerou informações inéditas para a Amazônia e sugerese que esses estudos sejam inseridos nos projetos de monitoramento da dinâmica florestal

Species turnover across different life stages from seedlings to canopy trees in swamp forests of Central Brazil

Processes driving the assembly of swamp forest communities have been poorly explored. We analyzed natural regeneration and adult tree communities data of a swamp gallery forest in Central Brazil to discuss the role of ecological filters in shaping plant species turnover in a successional gradient. Species data of 120 plots were used to assess species turnover between natural regeneration and adult tree communities. Our analyses were based on 4995 individuals belonging to 72 species. Community patterns were discerned using ordination analyses. A clear floristic turnover among plant life stages was distinguished. Regeneration community of swamp forests was richer in species composition than the adult community. Tree species commonly found in nonflooded gallery forests were present in the regeneration plots but not in the adult community. Differences in the floristic composition of these two strata suggest that not all species in the seedling stage can stand permanent flooding conditions and only a few tolerant species survive to become adult trees. We propose that natural disturbances play an important role by altering limiting resources, allowing seeds of nonflooded forest species to germinate. This paper elucidates the turnover between plant life stages in swamp forests and suggests mechanisms that may shape these communities

Dinâmica do componente arbóreo de uma mata de galeria inundável (Brasília, Distrito Federal) em um período de oito anos

(Dinâmica do componente arbóreo de uma mata de galeria inundável (Brasília, Distrito Federal) em um período de oito anos). As matas de galeria são importantes na manutenção dos recursos hídricos e da biodiversidade do Planalto Central, mas estão submetidas a fortes impactos antrópicos. Aquelas que ocorrem em solos mal drenados são pouquíssimo estudadas, com consequências negativas sobre sua conservação. Este trabalho objetivou avaliar a dinâmica florística e estrutural de um trecho de mata de galeria inundável na Fazenda Sucupira (15°54'22" S; 48°00'34" W), Brasília, Distrito Federal, em um período de oito anos (2000 a 2008). Nas duas medições realizadas, em 40 parcelas (0,8 ha) de 20 × 10 m, foram amostrados todos os indivíduos arbóreos com DAP ³ 3,0 cm. A primeira medição registrou 3.048 indivíduos, distribuídos em 50 espécies e 41 gêneros (32 famílias). Na segunda medição foram encontrados 2.728 indivíduos, pertencentes a 59 espécies e 48 gêneros (36 famílias). Em 2008 verificou-se diminuição de 320 indivíduos, mas acréscimo de 9 espécies, 7 gêneros e 4 famílias. O período monitorado revelou altas taxas de mortalidade (4,25% ano-1) e recrutamento (3,67% ano-1), mudanças consideráveis na importância de muitas espécies, sem alterações significativas na diversidade: H' = 2,84 nats indivíduo-1, J' = 0,73 em 2000; H' = 3,02 nats indivíduo-1, J' = 0,74 em 2008. Esses ambientes diferenciados parecem ser muito dinâmicos em sua florística, sem que a estrutura comunitária e a diversidade sejam afetadas. Mais estudos de dinâmica, por períodos mais longos, ainda são necessários para que se possa compreender o ambiente florestal inundável do Brasil Central com mais segurança, gerando informações que subsidiem ações prementes de conservação.(Dynamics of the arboreal component in a swamp gallery forest (Brasília, Federal District) over an eight year period). Gallery forests play an important role in supporting the water resources and biodiversity of the Brazilian Central Plateau, but they have been under strong anthropic impact. Those that occur in poorly drained soils are little studied, with negative consequences for their conservation. The aim of this work was to evaluate the floristic and structural dynamics of a swamp gallery forest fragment at Fazenda Sucupira (15°54'22" S; 48°00'34" W), Brasília, Federal District, over an eight year period (2000 to 2008). Two measurements were carried out in 40 plots (0.8 ha) of 20 × 10 m. All individuals with DAP ³ 3.0 cm were recorded. The first measurement registered 3,048 individuals, distributed in 50 species, 41 genera (32 families). In the second measurement 2,728 individuals were found, belonging to 59 species, 48 genera (36 families). In 2008 there was a reduction of 320 individuals but an addition of 9 species, 7 genera and 4 families. The monitoring period showed high rates of mortality (4.25% year-1) and recruitment (3.67% year-1), changes in the importance of many species, without significant modification of the diversity index: H' = 2.84 nats ind.-1, J' = 0.73 in 2000 and H' = 3.02 nats ind.-1, J' = 0.74 in 2008. This unique type of gallery forest seems to be dynamic in its floristic community, without detectable effects on structure and diversity. More studies focused on community dynamic, for longer periods are still needed for a better understanding of the swamp forest environment in Central Brazil, and to generate information for conservation action plans

Hysteresis area at the canopy level during and after a drought event in the Central Amazon

Understanding forest water limitation during droughts within a warming climate is essential for accurate predictions of forest-climate interactions. In hyperdiverse ecosystems like the Amazon forest, the mechanisms shaping hysteresis patterns in transpiration relative to environmental factors are not well understood. From this perspective, we investigated these dynamics by conducting in situ leaf-level measurements throughout and after the 2015 El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) drought. Our findings indicate a substantial increase in the hysteresis area (Harea) among transpiration (E), vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and stomatal conductance (gs) at canopy level during the ENSO peak, attributed to both temporal lag and differences in magnitude between gs and VPD peaks. Specifically, the canopy species Pouteria anomala exhibited an increased Harea, due to earlier maximum gs rates leading to a greater temporal lag with VPD compared to the post-drought period. Additionally, leaf water potential (ΨL) and canopy temperature (Tcanopy) showed larger Harea during the ENSO peak compared to post-drought conditions across all studied species, suggesting that stomatal closure, particularly during the afternoon, acts to minimize water loss and may explain the counterclockwise hysteresis observed between ΨL and Tcanopy. The pronounced Harea during the drought points to a potential imbalance between water supply and demand, underlining the role of stomatal behavior of isohydric species in response to drought

Dry and hot: The hydraulic consequences of a climate change–type drought for Amazonian trees

How plants respond physiologically to leaf warming and low water availability may determine how they will perform under future climate change. In 2015 – 2016, an unprecedented drought occurred across Amazonia with record-breaking high temperatures and low soil moisture, offering a unique opportunity to evaluate the performances of Amazonian trees to a severe climatic event. We quantified the responses of leaf water potential, sap velocity, whole-tree hydraulic conductance (Kwt), turgor loss and xylem embolism, during and after the 2015 – 2016 El Niño for five canopy-tree species. Leaf/xylem safety margins (SMs), sap velocity and Kwt showed a sharp drop during warm periods. SMs were negatively correlated with vapour pressure deficit, but had no significant relationship with soil water storage. Based on our calculations of canopy stomatal and xylem resistances, the decrease in sap velocity and Kwt was due to a combination of xylem cavitation and stomatal closure. Our results suggest that warm droughts greatly amplify the degree of trees’ physiological stress and can lead to mortality. Given the extreme nature of the 2015 – 2016 El Niño and that temperatures are predicted to increase, this work can serve as a case study of the possible impact climate warming can have on tropical trees. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘The impact of the 2015/2016 El Niño on the terrestrial tropical carbon cycle: patterns, mechanisms and implications’. © 2018 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved

Green leaf volatile emissions during high temperature and drought stress in a central Amazon rainforest

Prolonged drought stress combined with high leaf temperatures can induce programmed leaf senescence involving lipid peroxidation, and the loss of net carbon assimilation during early stages of tree mortality. Periodic droughts are known to induce widespread tree mortality in the Amazon rainforest, but little is known about the role of lipid peroxidation during drought-induced leaf senescence. In this study, we present observations of green leaf volatile (GLV) emissions during membrane peroxidation processes associated with the combined effects of high leaf temperatures and drought-induced leaf senescence from individual detached leaves and a rainforest ecosystem in the central Amazon. Temperature-dependent leaf emissions of volatile terpenoids were observed during the morning, and together with transpiration and net photosynthesis, showed a post-midday depression. This post-midday depression was associated with a stimulation of C5 and C6 GLV emissions, which continued to increase throughout the late afternoon in a temperature-independent fashion. During the 2010 drought in the Amazon Basin, which resulted in widespread tree mortality, green leaf volatile emissions (C6 GLVs) were observed to build up within the forest canopy atmosphere, likely associated with high leaf temperatures and enhanced drought-induced leaf senescence processes. The results suggest that observations of GLVs in the tropical boundary layer could be used as a chemical sensor of reduced ecosystem productivity associated with drought stress. © 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland

Mitochondrial physiology

As the knowledge base and importance of mitochondrial physiology to evolution, health and disease expands, the necessity for harmonizing the terminology concerning mitochondrial respiratory states and rates has become increasingly apparent. The chemiosmotic theory establishes the mechanism of energy transformation and coupling in oxidative phosphorylation. The unifying concept of the protonmotive force provides the framework for developing a consistent theoretical foundation of mitochondrial physiology and bioenergetics. We follow the latest SI guidelines and those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) on terminology in physical chemistry, extended by considerations of open systems and thermodynamics of irreversible processes. The concept-driven constructive terminology incorporates the meaning of each quantity and aligns concepts and symbols with the nomenclature of classical bioenergetics. We endeavour to provide a balanced view of mitochondrial respiratory control and a critical discussion on reporting data of mitochondrial respiration in terms of metabolic flows and fluxes. Uniform standards for evaluation of respiratory states and rates will ultimately contribute to reproducibility between laboratories and thus support the development of data repositories of mitochondrial respiratory function in species, tissues, and cells. Clarity of concept and consistency of nomenclature facilitate effective transdisciplinary communication, education, and ultimately further discovery

Tropical plant hydraulics in a changing climate: importance for species distribution and vulnerability to drought

Amazonian droughts are becoming more frequent and intense, having a profound effect on water availability for plants. However, we still have limited abilities to predict the effect of climate change on plant species survival and distribution in mega-diverse systems like the Amazon. Plant hydraulic traits coupled with the assessment of environmental characteristics emerge as an important tool to assess species physiological performance and resilience, especially during extreme climatic events. Here we investigate plant hydraulic strategies and physiological performance of tropical tree species (i) across contrasting environments, (ii) during an extreme drought event and (iii) during the course of a day to understand how water availability may shape species distribution and plant vulnerability to drought in the Amazon Basin.In the first chapter, I investigate if the current patterns of species’ distribution in the main Amazonian habitats can be explained by species hydraulic strategies and how variation in the hydraulic properties of Amazonian forests influences species-specific vulnerability to drought across different habitat types. I found strong segregation between species from wet vs. dry environments in relation to their functional traits, suggesting that water availability could be a strong predictor of species functional composition in the different Amazonian environments. Also, the xylem of dry-habitat species are more embolism resistant, but it may not be correct to assume that these species will be the ones performing better under a warmer and drier climate.The second chapter assesses plant physiological performance during a strong El Niño. This is the first study in the Amazon to measure in situ tree physiological stress before, during and after a natural drought event. I show that the warmer and drier conditions imposed by the El Niño greatly amplified trees’ physiological stress and could affect growth, phenology and potentially lead to tree mortality. Given the extreme nature of the this El Niño and that temperatures are predicted to increase in the tropics, this work can serve as a case study of the possible impact climate warming can have on tropical trees.In the third chapter, I analyzed the diurnal patterns of stomatal conductance, water potential, and sap velocity during the dry season and investigate how they change with canopy temperature and vapor pressure deficit. I found that unlike preview reported, plants have a re-hydration period during the hottest time of the day probably due to an imbalance between stem sap-velocity and leaf transpiration rates. This study helps to elucidate the array of processes influencing diurnal patterns of plant-water balance in tropical trees