Vector based semantic analysis reveals absence of competition among related senses

Ranija istraživanja pokazala su da je porast u broju povezanih značenja (polisemija) praćen kraćim vremenom obrade reči, dok je porast u broju nepovezanih značenja (homonimija) praćen dužim vremenom obrade reči. U ovom istraživanju evaluirali smo metod za kvantitativno opisivanje višeznačnih reči na osnovu višedimenzionalne distribucije kontekstualnih vektora kojeg su predložili Moscoso del Prado Martín i saradnici. Na osnovu distribucije kontekstualnih vektora pojedinačnih pojavljivanja polisemičnih reči srpskog jezika izračunata je entropija ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije i negentropija funkcije gustine verovatnoće. Entropija ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije, koja je izvedena iz matrice kovarijanse, predstavlja meru varijabilnosti u višedimenzionalnom prostoru i odslikava postojanje povezanih značenja reči (polisemija). Negentropija predstavlja razliku između entropije ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije i diferencijalne entropije funkcije gustine verovatnoće kontekstualnih vektora i odslikava postojanje nepovezanih značenja (homonimija). U skladu sa predviđanjima, na skupu polisemičnih imenica srpskog jezika, zabeležen je samo efekat entropije ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije. Negentropija nije imala uticaj na vreme reakcije. Ovaj nalaz je u skladu sa pretpostavkom da entropija ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije, kao mera širine aktivacije u semantičkom prostoru, odslikava polisemiju, odnosno prisustvo povezanih značenja reči. Stoga se prednost u obradi polisemičnih reči može objasniti širokom aktivacijom u semantičkom prostoru i smanjenom kompeticijom među Gausovim distribucijama koje se preklapaju u velikoj meri.Previous research demonstrated that processing time was facilitated by number of related word senses (polysemy) and inhibited by number of unrelated word meanings (homonymy). The starting point of this research were the findings described by Moscoso del Prado Martín and colleagues, who offered a unique account of processing of two forms of lexical ambiguity. By applying the techniques they proposed, for the set of strictly polysemous Serbian nouns we calculated ambiguity measures they introduced. Based on the covariance matrix of the context vectors, we derived entropy of equivalent Gaussian distribution, and based on the context vectors probability density function, we derived differential entropy. Negentropy was calculated as the difference between the two. Based on interpretation that entropy of equivalent Gaussian mirrors sense cooperation, or polysemy, while negentropy mirrors meaning competition, or homonymy, we predicted that in the set of strictly polysemous nouns, negentropy effect would disappear. In accordance with our predictions, entropy of equivalent Gaussian distribution accounted for significant proportion of processing latencies variance. Negentropy did not affect reaction time. This finding is in accordance with the hypothesis that entropy of equivalent Gaussian distribution, as a measure of general width of activation in semantic space, reflects polysemy, that is, the existence of related senses. Therefore, polysemy advantage could be the result of the wide-spread activation in semantic space and reduced competition among overlapping Gaussians

Polysemy effect in processing of Serbian nouns

U ovom istraživanju ispitano je da li na vreme obrade polisemičnih reči, pored broja značenja, utiče i entropija distribucije verovatnoća značenja, odnosno ujednačenost verovatnoća značenja. Pošto je vrednost entropije određena ujednačenošću verovatnoća značenja (redundansa distibucije verovatnoća) i brojem značenja, u dva eksperimenta sa zadatkom leksičke odluke ispitano je da li ove dve komponente entropije nezavisno utiču na vreme obrade. Najpre je prikupljeno nekoliko mera višeznačnosti za 150 polisemičnih imenica srpskog jezika. Mere su izvedene za značenja navedenih u Rečniku Matice srpske i značenja koja su naveli ispitanici, govornici srpskog jezika. Na osnovu odgovora ispitanika utvrđen je broj značenja, proporcija navođenja različitih značenja, entropija i redundansa distribucije verovatnoća značenja. U prvom eksperimentu, broj značenja i entropija/redundansa tretirani su kao kontinuirani prediktori u regresionim analizama. U drugom eksperimentu, prikazane su dve grupe polisemičnih imenica koje su imale mali, odnosno veliki broj značenja i ujednačene (niska redundansa), odnosno neujednačene verovatnoće značenja (visoka redundansa). U oba eksperimenta, rezultati su pokazali statistički značajne efekte entropije i redundanse nakon što je izdvojena varijansa objašnjena dužinom reči, frekvencijom leme, familijarnošću, konkretnošću i brojem značenja. Konačno, validiran je jedan metod za kvantitativno opisivanje višeznačnih reči na osnovu višedimenzionalne distribucije kontekstualnih vektora. Na osnovu matrice kovarijanse distribucije kontekstualnih vektora pojedinačnih pojavljivanja polisemičnih reči srpskog jezika izvedena je entropija ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije koja predstavlja meru varijabilnosti u višedimenzionalnom prostoru i odslikava postojanje povezanih značenja reči (polisemija). Preko razlike između entropije ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije i diferencijalne entropije funkcije gustine verovatnoće kontekstualnih vektora izvedena je negentropija funkcije gustine verovatnoće koja odslikava postojanje nepovezanih značenja (homonimija). U skladu sa predviđanjima, na skupu polisemičnih imenica srpskog jezika, zabeležen je samo efekat entropije ekvivalentne Gausove distribucije. Negentropija nije imala uticaj na vreme reakcije, što ukazuje na odsustvo kompeticije između povezanih značenja polisemičnih reči. Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju na izuzetnu osetljivost kognitivnog sistema na probabilističke odlike jezika.The present study aims to demonstrate that in addition to number of senses, entropy of sense probability distribution, that is balance of sense probabilities affects processing of polysemous words. Entropy is affected by two sources of uncertainty: balance of sense probabilities (redundancy of probability distribution) and number of senses. With this in mind, we made an attempt to demonstrate that two components of entropy have distinct effects on processing time. Firstly, we collected several measures of ambiguity for 150 Serbian polysemous nouns. Ambiguity measures are derived separately for dictionary senses, and senses provided by native speakers. Based on provided senses, we calculated number of senses, proportion of each sense, entropy and redundancy of sense probability distribution. In the first experiment, number of senses and entropy/redundancy were continuous predictors in multiple regression analyses. In the second experiment, groups of polysemous nouns were selected to have either few, or many senses, and either balanced (low redundancy) or unbalanced (high redundancy) sense probability distributions. In both experiments, analyses revealed significant effects of either redundancy, or entropy after partialling out contributions of several control variables. Finally, a method for quantitative description of ambiguous words based on multidimensional distribution of context vectors was validated. Based on covariance matrix Еntropy of equivalent Gaussian distribution (EGE) is derived, representing a measure of general variability in multidimensional space, reflecting related senses of a word (polysemy). By substracting EGE from differential entropy of probability density function of context vectors we derived negentropy, which reflects word’s unrelated meanings (homonymy). As predicted, for the set of polysemous nouns only EGE accounted for significant proportion of variance of processing latencies. Negentropy had no effect on reaction time, indicating the absence of competition between related senses of polysemous words. The obtained results demonstrate high sensitivity of cognitive system to probabilistic properties of language

Categor 1.1 – slobodan softver za pomoć u razvrstavanju odgovora u kategorije i analizi kategorija

Premda se istraživanja u eksperimentalnoj psihologiji dominantno oslanjaju na kvantitativne podatke, postoje brojne situacije u kojima se od ispitanika zahteva davanje opisnih odgovora. To je naročito prisutno u početnim fazama ispitivanja neke pojave i u situacijama kada istraživač ne želi da nameće strukturu, već ima cilj da ispita intuicije svojih ispitanika. Ipak, prikupljene odgovore ponekad je, u cilju sticanja uvida u obrasce u prikupljenim podacima, potrebno podeliti u grupe srodnih odgovora.XXVI Nаučnа konferencijа "Pedаgoškа istrаživаnjа i školskа prаksа

On advantage of seeing TEXT and hearing SPEECH

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of congruence between the sensory modality through which a concept can be experienced and the modality through which the word denoting that concept is perceived during word recognition. Words denoting concepts that can be experienced visually (e.g. "color") and words denoting concepts that can be experienced auditorily (e.g. "noise") were presented both visually and auditorily. We observed shorter processing latencies when there was a match between the modality through which a concept could be experienced and the modality through which a word denoting that concept was presented. In visual lexical decision task, "color" was recognized faster than "noise", whereas in auditory lexical decision task, "noise" was recognized faster than "color". The obtained pattern of results can not be accounted for by exclusive amodal theories, whereas it can be easily integrated in theories based on perceptual representations

The effect of polysemy on processing of Serbian nouns

Istraživanja izvedena na engleskom jeziku pokazala su da postojanje nepovezanih značenja reči (homonimija, npr. "osa" - insekt i "osa" - koordinata) usporava obradu, dok postojanje povezanih značenja reči (polisemija, npr. "glava" - deo tela i "glava" - poglavlje) ubrzava obradu (Rodd, Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson, 2002; Klepousniotou, 2002). Cilj ovog istraživanja je ispitivanje uticaja polisemije na obradu reči srpskog jezika. Rezultati tri eksperimenta sa zadatkom leksičke odluke pokazali su da se polisemične reči obrađuju brže. Pored toga, pokazano je da ne postoji interakcija između frekvencije leme i broja značenja. Konačno, predložena je nova mera višeznačnosti, zasnovana na ideji primene "informacionog reziduala" kao mere morfološke kompleksnosti reči (Moscoso del Prado Martin, Kostic & Baayen, 2004). U našem istraživanju informacioni rezidual predstavlja razliku između količine informacije izvedene iz frekvencije leme (log p) i entropije distribucije značenja reči. S obzirom na to da u ovom trenutku ne raspolažemo verovatnoćama značenja reči srpskog jezika, entropija je aproksimirana maksimalnom entropijom (log N). Kombinovanje frekvencije leme i broja značenja u jedinstvenu probabilističku meru rešava problem kolinearnosti dve varijable. Pored toga, mogućnost primene informacionog reziduala na slučaj polisemije ukazuje na mogućnost da je kognitivni sistem osetljiv na entropiju distribucije verovatnoća značenja reči.It has been shown that while multiple unrelated meanings of a word (e.g. bank) increase processing latency, polysemy, that is multiple related word senses (e.g. paper) produce faster responses (Rodd, Gaskell & Marslen-Wilson, 2002; Klepousniotou, 2002). The goal of this study was to explore the effect of polysemy on word processing in Serbian. The outcomes of three lexical decision experiments have shown that polysemous words are processed faster. In addition, lemma frequency and number of related senses did not interact. Finally, a measure that combines lemma frequency and number of related senses into a single metric is proposed. This measure is information residual, initially applied on derivational morphology (Moscoso del Prado Martìn, Kostic & Baayen, 2004). In this study the information residual is a difference between the amount of information (bit) derived from lemma frequency and the entropy of a polysemic cluster. Since relative frequencies of different word senses of a given word in Serbian are currently not available, maximum entropy (log N) was used as an approximation. The outcome of this study indicates that cognitive system is sensitive not only to the entropy of derivational clusters, but polysemic clusters as well

Polysemy effect in processing of Serbian nouns

U оvоm istrаživаnju ispitаnо је dа li nа vrеmе оbrаdе pоlisеmičnih rеči, pоrеd brоја znаčеnjа, utičе i еntrоpiја distribuciје vеrоvаtnоćа znаčеnjа, оdnоsnо uјеdnаčеnоst vеrоvаtnоćа znаčеnjа. Pоštо је vrеdnоst еntrоpiје оdrеđеnа uјеdnаčеnоšću vеrоvаtnоćа znаčеnjа (rеdundаnsа distibuciје vеrоvаtnоćа) i brојеm znаčеnjа, u dvа еkspеrimеntа sа zаdаtkоm lеksičkе оdlukе ispitаnо је dа li оvе dvе kоmpоnеntе еntrоpiје nеzаvisnо utiču nа vrеmе оbrаdе. Nајprе је prikuplјеnо nеkоlikо mеrа višеznаčnоsti zа 150 pоlisеmičnih imеnicа srpskоg јеzikа. Меrе su izvеdеnе zа znаčеnjа nаvеdеnih u Rеčniku Маticе srpskе i znаčеnjа kоја su nаvеli ispitаnici, gоvоrnici srpskоg јеzikа. Nа оsnоvu оdgоvоrа ispitаnikа utvrđеn је brој znаčеnjа, prоpоrciја nаvоđеnjа rаzličitih znаčеnjа, еntrоpiја i rеdundаnsа distribuciје vеrоvаtnоćа znаčеnjа. U prvоm еkspеrimеntu, brој znаčеnjа i еntrоpiја/rеdundаnsа trеtirаni su kао kоntinuirаni prеdiktоri u rеgrеsiоnim аnаlizаmа. U drugоm еkspеrimеntu, prikаzаnе su dvе grupе pоlisеmičnih imеnicа kоје su imаlе mаli, оdnоsnо vеliki brој znаčеnjа i uјеdnаčеnе (niskа rеdundаnsа), оdnоsnо nеuјеdnаčеnе vеrоvаtnоćе znаčеnjа (visоkа rеdundаnsа). U оbа еkspеrimеntа, rеzultаti su pоkаzаli stаtistički znаčајnе еfеktе еntrоpiје i rеdundаnsе nаkоn štо је izdvојеnа vаriјаnsа оbјаšnjеnа dužinоm rеči, frеkvеnciјоm lеmе, fаmiliјаrnоšću, kоnkrеtnоšću i brојеm znаčеnjа. Kоnаčnо, vаlidirаn је јеdаn mеtоd zа kvаntitаtivnо оpisivаnjе višеznаčnih rеči nа оsnоvu višеdimеnziоnаlnе distribuciје kоntеkstuаlnih vеktоrа. Nа оsnоvu mаtricе kоvаriјаnsе distribuciје kоntеkstuаlnih vеktоrа pојеdinаčnih pојаvlјivаnjа pоlisеmičnih rеči srpskоg јеzikа izvеdеnа је еntrоpiја еkvivаlеntnе Gаusоvе distribuciје kоја prеdstаvlја mеru vаriјаbilnоsti u višеdimеnziоnаlnоm prоstоru i оdslikаvа pоstојаnjе pоvеzаnih znаčеnjа rеči (pоlisеmiја). Prеkо rаzlikе izmеđu еntrоpiје еkvivаlеntnе Gаusоvе distribuciје i difеrеnciјаlnе еntrоpiје funkciје gustinе vеrоvаtnоćе kоntеkstuаlnih vеktоrа izvеdеnа је nеgеntrоpiја funkciје gustinе vеrоvаtnоćе kоја оdslikаvа pоstојаnjе nеpоvеzаnih znаčеnjа (hоmоnimiја). U sklаdu sа prеdviđаnjimа, nа skupu pоlisеmičnih imеnicа srpskоg јеzikа, zаbеlеžеn је sаmо еfеkаt еntrоpiје еkvivаlеntnе Gаusоvе distribuciје. Nеgеntrоpiја niје imаlа uticај nа vrеmе rеаkciје, štо ukаzuје nа оdsustvо kоmpеticiје izmеđu pоvеzаnih znаčеnjа pоlisеmičnih rеči. Dоbiјеni rеzultаti ukаzuјu nа izuzеtnu оsеtlјivоst kоgnitivnоg sistеmа nа prоbаbilističkе оdlikе јеzikа.The present study aims to demonstrate that in addition to number of senses, entropy of sense probability distribution, that is balance of sense probabilities affects processing of polysemous words. Entropy is affected by two sources of uncertainty: balance of sense probabilities (redundancy of probability distribution) and number of senses. With this in mind, we made an attempt to demonstrate that two components of entropy have distinct effects on processing time. Firstly, we collected several measures of ambiguity for 150 Serbian polysemous nouns. Ambiguity measures are derived separately for dictionary senses, and senses provided by native speakers. Based on provided senses, we calculated number of senses, proportion of each sense, entropy and redundancy of sense probability distribution. In the first experiment, number of senses and entropy/redundancy were continuous predictors in multiple regression analyses. In the second experiment, groups of polysemous nouns were selected to have either few, or many senses, and either balanced (low redundancy) or unbalanced (high redundancy) sense probability distributions. In both experiments, analyses revealed significant effects of either redundancy, or entropy after partialling out contributions of several control variables. Finally, a method for quantitative description of ambiguous words based on multidimensional distribution of context vectors was validated. Based on covariance matrix Еntropy of equivalent Gaussian distribution (EGE) is derived, representing a measure of general variability in multidimensional space, reflecting related senses of a word (polysemy). By substracting EGE from differential entropy of probability density function of context vectors we derived negentropy, which reflects word’s unrelated meanings (homonymy). As predicted, for the set of polysemous nouns only EGE accounted for significant proportion of variance of processing latencies. Negentropy had no effect on reaction time, indicating the absence of competition between related senses of polysemous words. The obtained results demonstrate high sensitivity of cognitive system to probabilistic properties of language

Processing of inflected adjectives

U dva eksperimenta sa zadatkom leksičke odluke ispitana je obrada inflektivnih oblika prideva u srpskom jeziku. U istraživanju su postavljena sledeća pitanja: a) da li pridevi, kao i imenice, sadrže sintaksičke funkcije/značenja, b) da li je pridevski rod kognitivno relevantna kategorija, c) da li je kognitivni sistem osetljiv na padež prideva, i d) da li je pri obradi prideva kognitivni sistem osetljiv na broj inflektivnih oblika imenice sa kojima je dati oblik prideva kongruentan. U skladu sa navedenim pitanjima predložene su jednačine iz kojih se izvodi količina informacije inflektivnih oblika prideva. Dobijeni rezultati pokazuju da inflektivni oblik prideva uključuje padežne funkcije/značenja i da kognitivni sistem nije osetljiv na rod prideva. Postoje indicije da je kognitivni sistem osetljiv na padež prideva i na broj inflektivnih oblika imenice sa kojima je određeni oblik prideva kongruentan. Ovi nalazi, međutim, zahtevaju dodatnu proveru.Processing of inflected Serbian verbs was investigated in two lexical decision experiments. Specifically, the following issues were addressed: a. does the adjectival system contain syntactic functions and meanings, and b. are adjectival gender and case cognitively relevant properties. Each of the above issues could be expressed in terms of alternative equations that generate the amount of information carried by inflected form of an adjective. The informational values were correlated with mean reaction time to inflected adjectival forms. The outcome of the two experiments indicated that number of syntactic functions/meanings is the obligatory term in the equation that generates the amount of information carried by an adjectival inflected form. However, unlike nouns, where the amount information was specified in terms of ratio between a. sum of frequencies of inflected cases encompassed by a given inflected form and b. sum of its functions/ meanings, equation for adjectives includes sum of frequency by number of syntactic functions/meanings ratios for cases encompassed by a given inflected adjectival form. This, on the other hand, suggests that cognitive system when processing inflected adjectives is to some extent sensitive to adjectival case. It was also demonstrated that cognitive system is not sensitive to adjective gender

The effect of bilingualism on executive functions when languages are similar: a comparison between Hungarian–Serbian and Slovak–Serbian young adult bilinguals

Among the factors argued to contribute to a bilingual advantage in executive function (EF), the combination of languages spoken by the bilingual is often overlooked. In this study, we explored the role of language similarity on memory and EF task by comparing performance of three groups of young adults—Hungarian–Serbian and Slovak–Serbian early balanced bilinguals, and Serbian-speaking monolinguals. Slovak is typologically related to Serbian, which are both Slavic, in contrast to Hungarian, which is Finno–Ugric. On the computerized tasks from the CANTAB battery (CANTAB Cognition, 2016, www.cantab.com), differences between monolinguals and bilinguals emerged on the EF tasks: Stockings of Cambridge (SOC) and Attentional Set Shifting (AST), but not the memory tasks: Delayed Matching to Sample (DMS), Paired Associate Learning (PAL), Spatial Working Memory (SWM). Both Hungarian–Serbian and Slovak–Serbian bilinguals outperformed the monolinguals on the more difficult SOC tasks, solved using more than a minimally required number of moves. This is in line with reports that bilinguals perform better under more complex conditions that require more monitoring and switching. However, bilinguals speaking Hungarian and Serbian spent less time preparing to execute the simpler SOC tasks, which can be solved in a minimum of two or three moves; they also exhibited reduced local switching cost and were faster overall on AST than both the Slovak–Serbian bilinguals and Serbian monolinguals. The advantageous performance of speakers of the typologically unrelated languages in our study suggests that these bilinguals may have more efficient attention switching and inhibition systems than bilinguals who speak typologically similar languages

Analyzing data from memory tasks - comparison of ANOVA, logistic regression and mixed logit model

We compared three statistical analyses over binary outcomes. As applying ANOVA over proportions violates at least two classical assumptions of linear models, two alternatives are described: the binary logistic regression and the mixed logit model. Firstly, we compared the effects obtained by the three methods over the same data from a previous memory research. All three methods gave similar results: the effects of the tasks and the number of sensory modalities were observed, but not their interaction. Secondly, by using the bootstrap estimates of the parameters, the efficacy of each method was explored. As predicted, the bootstrap parameter estimates of the ANOVA had large bias and standard errors, and consequently wide confidence intervals. On the other hand, the bootstrap parameter estimates of the binary logistic regression and the mixed logit models were similar - both had low bias and standard errors and narrow confidence intervals

Bi-alphabetism: A window on phonological processing

In Serbian, lexical decision latencies to words composed of letters that exist in both the Roman and Cyrillic alphabets (some of which have different phonemic interpretations in each) are slower than for the unique alphabet transcription of those same words. In this study, we use the effect of phonological ambiguity to explore the time course of semantic facilitation. Targets are either the phonologically ambiguous forms (e. g., PETAK meaning "Friday" when pronounced as a Roman string /petak/ but without meaning when pronounced in Cyrillic as /retak/) or the unique alphabet transcription of the same word (HETAK). We manipulate alphabet match and semantic relatedness of prime to target. In addition to replicating slowing due to phonological ambiguity, we show 1) greater alphabet switch cost for bivalent then for unambiguous targets as well as for unrelated then for related prime-target pairs and 2) greater semantic facilitation as the number of shared common letters between prime and target increases. Results reveal the interaction of phonological and semantic processes in Serbian. The findings are discussed in terms of a triangle model of language processing, which hypothesizes a division of labor between an orthography-to-semantics, and an orthography-to-phonology-to-semantics route and their simultaneous contribution to activation of meaning