49 research outputs found

    The Use of Cream in the Investigation of Human Error in Aviation Events: a Case Study

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    To investigate Human Factors issues of the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), a part-task simulation has been conducted. The analysis method employed was based on the CREAM principles and included the following steps: Predictive analysis, Simulations, Data analysis, Retrospective analysis. The project called ARCADES , presented in this paper, concerns the errors identification and research of causes. The collective work based on CREAM is composed of four steps alternating between work in pairs and plenary session: the events identification and classification, consensus on the events to be analyzed, the retrospective analysis, and the mutual analysis. The work group was composed of pilots, controllers, investigators and Human Factors experts. The analysis was based on the data collected during the simulations: video recordings, questionnaires, audio recording of debriefing. Concerning the identification step, results show the interest of the clear distinction between causes and consequences, as it exists in CREAM. Indeed, it enables to bind the analysts to objectivity in the identification and the calling of the events. Inter-pairs variability remains important for the three scenarios studied. Participants agreed on the interest of the method concerning the search of causes. The method enables to pursue analyses more deeply and more exhaustively, results show that the method guides towards systemic causes. Results also emphasize the complementarity of different points of view and the interest of a collective approach

    Biological response to purification and acid functionalization of carbon nanotubes

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    The final publication is available at Springer via: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11051-014-2507-yInternational audienceAcid functionalization has been considered as an easy way to enhance the dispersion and biodegradation of carbon nanotubes (CNT). However, inconsistencies between toxicity studies of acid functionalized CNT remain unexplained. This could be due to a joint effect of the main physicochemical modifications resulting from an acid functionalization: addition of surface acid groups and purification from catalytic metallic impurities. In this study, the impact on CNT biotoxicity of these two physiochemical features was assessed separately. The in vitro biological response of RAW 264.7 macrophages was evaluated after exposure to 15-240 ”g x mL−1 of two types of multi-walled CNT. For each type of CNT (small: 20 nm diameter, and big: 90 nm diameter), three different surface chemical properties were studied (total of six CNT samples): pristine, acid functionalized and desorbed. Desorbed CNT were purified by the acid functionalization but presented a very low amount of surface acid groups due to a thermal treatment under vacuum. A Janus effect of acid functionalization with two opposite impacts is highlighted. The CNT purification decreased the overall toxicity, while the surface acid groups intensified it when present at a specific threshold. These acid groups especially amplified the pro-inflammatory response. The threshold mechanism which seemed to regulate the impact of acid groups should be further studied to determine its value and potential link to the other physicochemical state of the CNT. The results suggest that, for a safer-design approach, the benefit-risk balance of an acid functionalization has to be considered, depending on the CNT primary state of purification. Further research should be conducted in this direction

    Thermal annealing of carbon nanotubes reveals a strong toxicological impact of the structural defects

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    Le document insĂ©rĂ© dans cette page comprend des donnĂ©es supplĂ©mentaire Ă  l'article " Thermal annealing of carbon nanotubes reveals a toxicological impact of the structural defects" (DOI: 10.1007/s11051-015-2999-0) paru dans Journal of Nanoparticles ResearchInternational audienceThe biological response to pristine and annealed multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) was assessed on murine macrophages (RAW 264.7). First, the physicochemical features of the as-produced MWCNT and annealed at 2125 °C for 1 h were fully characterized. A decrease in structural defects, hydrophobicity and catalytic impurities was detected after annealing. Thereafter, their impact on cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory response was investigated at concentrations ranging from 15 to 120 ”g mL−1. No effect of the 2125 °C treatment was detected on the cytotoxicity. In contrast, the annealed carbon nanotubes showed a significant increase of the pro-inflammatory response. We assumed that this behavior was due to the reduction in structural defects that may modify the layer of adsorbed biomolecules. Surprisingly, the purification of metallic catalysts did not have any significant impact on the oxidative stress. We suggested that the structural improvements from the 2125 °C treatment can decrease the carbon nanotube scavenging capacity and thus allow a higher free radical release which may counterbalance the decrease of oxidative stress due to a lower content of metallic impurities

    In vitro toxicity and physico-chemical properties of carbon nanotubes

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    Les propriĂ©tĂ©s exceptionnelles des nanotubes de carbone (CNT) attirent de nombreux industriels dans les domaines de la microĂ©lectronique, des matĂ©riaux ou de la nanomĂ©decine. NĂ©anmoins, le risque sanitaire liĂ© Ă  ce nanomatĂ©riau reste encore mal compris. Des profils toxicologiques diffĂ©rents, dĂ©pendant des caractĂ©ristiques physico-Chimiques des CNT, ont Ă©tĂ© mis en Ă©vidence. Une approche « safer by design » est proposĂ©e, afin d’identifier les paramĂštres pouvant, dĂšs la conception des CNT, pour limiter le risque sanitaire. Dans ce contexte, cette thĂšse avait pour objectif d’étudier l’impact sur la rĂ©ponse in vitro d’une lignĂ©e de macrophages murins (RAW 264.7) de deux traitements de post-Production de CNT : la fonctionnalisation acide et le recuit haute tempĂ©rature.Les groupements acides en surface des CNT fonctionnalisĂ©s ont entrainĂ© une augmentation de la rĂ©ponse pro-Inflammatoire sans influencer significativement la cytotoxicitĂ©. D’un autre cĂŽtĂ©, la fonctionnalisation acide, principalement par l’élimination des impuretĂ©s mĂ©talliques, a permis de diminuer le stress oxydant. Les CNT recuits Ă  haute tempĂ©rature Ă©taient Ă  l’origine d’une rĂ©ponse pro-Inflammatoire plus importante que les CNT bruts, confirmant lasensibilitĂ© de cette rĂ©ponse biologique Ă  la chimie de surface. En revanche, le recuit n’a pas diminuĂ© significativement le stress oxydant malgrĂ© la purification des CNT, suggĂ©rant l’importance des dĂ©fauts de structure sur cette rĂ©ponse biologique. La fonctionnalisation acide de nano-Graphite et de noir de carbone a eu un impact similaire Ă  celle des CNT sur l’activitĂ© biologique des macrophages. La comparaison de ces trois nanomatĂ©riaux fonctionnalisĂ©s semble s’accorder avec le paradigme mettant en exergue la toxicitĂ© spĂ©cifique des fibres et des plaquettes. Enfin, afin de complĂ©ter ces rĂ©sultats, des Ă©tudes exploratoires sur les interfĂ©rences entre les tests de toxicitĂ© et les CNT, ainsi que sur le stress oxydant, ont Ă©tĂ© conduites.Due to their exceptional properties, carbon nanotubes (CNT) have aroused a huge interest among in industrial fields such as microelectronics, material science and nanomedicine. Nevertheless, the health impacts of this nanomaterial still remain not well understood. The first toxicological studies pointed out that there is no unique response regarding the healthimpact of the CNT, but different toxicological profiles according to their various physicochemical properties. A safer by design approach is thus proposed to identify the parameters decreasing from their production the CNT biological impacts. In this context, this work aimed at studying the impact on the in vitro response from a macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) of two post-Production treatments: acid functionalization and high temperature annealing.Surface acid groups from functionalized CNT enhanced the pro-Inflammatory response although the cytotoxicity remained stable. On the other hand, acid functionalization, through the elimination of metallic impurities, significantly decreased the oxidative stress. Annealed CNT increased the pro-Inflammatory response compared to the pristine CNT. It thus confirmed the sensitivity of this response for the changes in surface chemistry. However, the high temperature annealing did not influence the oxidative stress, despite of the CNT purification. It suggested that structural defects are also of importance for this response. Besides, the acid functionalization of nano-Graphite and carbon black displayed trends in the macrophage response similar to the acid functionalization of CNT. The comparison of these three carbon-Based nanomaterials seemed to conform to the fibre and platelets paradigm. Eventually, exploratory studies have also been conducted on the interferences between CNT and the toxicity assays, and on the oxidative stress

    Industry in Saint Claude and diamond cutting at the time of the first globalisation, from the 1870's to 1914

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    Dans les annĂ©es 1870, la taille du diamant est introduite dans le Haut-Jura. A la veille de la PremiĂšre Guerre mondiale, elle y occupe environ 1 500 ouvriers. Elle constitue une nouvelle activitĂ© dans un territoire industriel oĂč sont fabriquĂ©s d'autres produits manufacturĂ©s, notamment les « articles de Saint-Claude » et les pipes de bruyĂšre, et façonnĂ©es d'autres pierres prĂ©cieuses ou fines. Cette thĂšse vise Ă  montrer que le succĂšs de l'introduction de cette nouvelle branche industrielle dans le Haut-Jura rĂ©sulte de la capacitĂ© d'un territoire industriel local Ă  s'insĂ©rer dans le processus de mondialisation de l'Ă©conomie. Dans une premiĂšre partie, l'organisation de la production du diamant taillĂ© est Ă©tudiĂ©e et contextualisĂ©e Ă  l'Ă©chelle locale, celle du district industriel de Saint-Claude. Dans une deuxiĂšme partie, les modes d'intĂ©gration du Haut-Jura dans le monde du diamant (sous-traitance, place sur les marchĂ©s diamantaires) sont dĂ©crits. Dans une derniĂšre partie, sont analysĂ©es les stratĂ©gies dĂ©veloppĂ©es par les acteurs de la branche diamantaire du district industriel de Saint-Claude pour optimiser leur insertion dans le processus de mondialisation de l'Ă©conomie.Diamond cutting was introduced in Haut Jura, i.e the Jura mountains, in the 1870's. At the onset of World War One, about 1,500 workers were employed in this field . It was a new activity in an industrial area where other manufactured goods were produced, notably the so-called "articles de Saint Claude", i.e objects made of box wood or horn, briar pipes and the cutting of other precious and semi precious stones. This thesis aims at showing that implementing this new activity in Haut Jura was a success thanks to the capacity of local industrialists to adapt to the emerging globalisation of economy. The first part deals with the organisation of the diamond cutting industry from a local perspective, i.e the Saint Claude area. The second part studies how Haut Jura inserted itself in the diamond market , through for instance subsidiary work and representatives on diamond markets. A last part deals with the strategies carried out by diamond cutters from Saint Claude in order to make the most of their part in the globalisation process

    Pourquoi taillait-on des diamants dans le Jura ?

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    Exploiter et tailler les diamants est une activitĂ© ancienne : dĂšs Ă  la fin du Moyen-Âge, une chaĂźne de production relie les territoires de production du diamant brut – l’Inde d’abord, le BrĂ©sil Ă  partir de 1730 – Ă  l’Europe. Les diamants y sont alors taillĂ©s, essentiellement Ă  Amsterdam, et montĂ©s sur des bijoux dans les ateliers des joailliers. Cette configuration est toutefois bouleversĂ©e par la dĂ©couverte des gisements diamantifĂšres d’Afrique australe Ă  la fin des annĂ©es 1860. Leur mise en..

    Compréhension des étapes précoces de la résistance adaptative aux inhibiteurs de tyrosine kinase de l'EGFR dans les cancers bronchiques

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    Le cancer bronchique porteur d'une mutation activatrice de l'EGFR bĂ©nĂ©ficie du dĂ©veloppement des inhibiteurs de tyrosine kinase de l'EGFR (EGFR-TKI). Cependant l'efficacitĂ© de ces thĂ©rapeutiques bien qu'Ă©lĂ©vĂ©e n'est que transitoire, ces thĂ©rapies se heurtent inĂ©vitablement Ă  des phĂ©nomĂšnes de rĂ©sistance. Des Ă©tudes antĂ©rieures suggĂšrent que cette rĂ©sistance pourrait provenir d'une population de cellules tolĂ©rantes (ou Drug-Tolerant Cells, DTC) qui, aprĂšs un Ă©tat de pseudo-dormance, dĂ©veloppent de nouveaux mĂ©canismes de rĂ©sistance dont des mutations secondaires de l'EGFR, des amplifications de MET, etc.... Cet Ă©tat de tolĂ©rance a Ă©tĂ© mis en Ă©vidence in vitro essentiellement sur une seule lignĂ©e cellulaire et reste assez peu caractĂ©risĂ©. L'objectif de ce travail de thĂšse a Ă©tĂ© d'Ă©largir et d'approfondir l'Ă©tude des mĂ©canismes de rĂ©sistance Ă  diffĂ©rentes lignĂ©es cellulaires tumorales bronchiques porteuses de mutations activatrices de l'EGFR traitĂ©es par des EGFR-TKIs de premiĂšre (erlotinib) ou de derniĂšre gĂ©nĂ©ration (osimertinib). Nos travaux montrent que la durĂ©e de la phase de tolĂ©rance et l'Ă©mergence de clones prolifĂ©ratifs rĂ©sistants aux EGFR-TKIs sont trĂšs hĂ©tĂ©rogĂšnes entre les lignĂ©es Ă©tudiĂ©es mais aussi au sein d'une mĂȘme lignĂ©e. En revanche la majoritĂ© des DTC ont une morphologie Ă©largie associĂ©e Ă  un remodelage du cytosquelette d'actine ainsi qu'Ă  un Ă©tat de pseudo-sĂ©nescence, qui semble prĂ©disposer Ă  la transition Ă©pithĂ©lio-mĂ©senchymateuse (TEM) se developpant progressivement du stade DTC jusqu'au stade prolifĂ©ratif, aprĂšs la perte des caractĂ©ristiques de sĂ©nescence. Des analyses en RNAseq montrent que des signatures gĂ©niques liĂ©es Ă  la contractilitĂ© cellulaire sont retrouvĂ©es au stade DTC dans les trois modĂšles cellulaires Ă©tudiĂ©s. Les travaux antĂ©rieurs du laboratoire ayant montrĂ© le rĂŽle de la petite GTPase RhoB dans la rĂ©gulation du cytosquelette d'actine et dans la rĂ©sistance Ă  l'erlotinib, nous avons investiguĂ© son rĂŽle dans la tolĂ©rance aux EGFR TKIs. RhoB, contrairement Ă  ses homologues RhoA et RhoC, est surexprimĂ©e et suractivĂ©e dans les DTC. De plus son inhibition par la C3 exoenzyme, toxine inhibant spĂ©cifiquement RhoA, RhoB et RhoC, permet l'Ă©radication des DTC et prĂ©vient l'Ă©mergence de clones rĂ©sistants. RhoB Ă©tant rĂ©gulĂ©e par sa prĂ©nylation et notamment sa farnĂ©sylation, l'association d'un inhibiteur de farnĂ©syltransfĂ©rase (FTI) et d'un EGFR-TKI a Ă©tĂ© analysĂ©e et montre qu'elle prĂ©vient trĂšs efficacement l'Ă©mergence de clones prolifĂ©ratifs. Ces rĂ©sultats nous conduisent Ă  proposer cette association comme nouvelle stratĂ©gie thĂ©rapeutique dans les cancers bronchiques porteurs de mutations activatrices de l'EGFR.Lung cancer with EGFR activating mutation benefits from the development of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKI). However, the effectiveness of these therapies, although high, is only transitory, and patients inevitably develop resistance phenomena. Previous studies suggest that this resistance could arise from a population of tolerant cells (or Drug-Tolerant Cells, DTC) which, after a pseudo-dormant state, develop new resistance mechanisms including secondary EGFR mutations, MET amplifications, etc. This state of tolerance has been demonstrated in vitro mainly on only one cell line and remains poorly characterized. The objective of this PhD work was to broaden and deepen the study of the mechanisms of resistance to different lung tumor cell lines harboring EGFR activating mutations treated with first (erlotinib) or latest-generation (osimertinib) EGFR-TKIs. Our work shows that duration of the tolerance phase and then the development of EGFR-TKIs resistant proliferative clones are very heterogeneous between the cell lines studied but also within the same cell line. However, most DTC have an enlarged morphology associated with remodelling of the actin cytoskeleton as well as a pseudo-senescent state, which seems to predispose towards the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) developing progressively from the DTC state to the proliferative state, after loss of senescence characteristics. RNA-seq analyses show that gene signatures related to cell contractility are found at the DTC state in the three cell models studied. As previous work in the laboratory has shown the role of the small GTPase RhoB in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and in resistance to erlotinib, we investigated its role in tolerance to EGFR TKIs. RhoB, unlike its counterparts RhoA and RhoC, is over-expressed and over-activated in DTC. Moreover, its inhibition by the C3 exoenzyme, a toxin that specifically inhibits RhoA, RhoB and RhoC, allows the eradication of DTC and thus prevents the emergence of resistant clones. Since RhoB is regulated by prenylation and in particular by farnesylation, the combination of a farnesyltransferase inhibitor (FTI) and an EGFR-TKI was analyzed and shows that it effectively prevents the emergence of proliferative clones. These results lead us to propose this combination as a new therapeutic strategy in lung cancers carrying EGFR activating mutations

    Toxicité in vitro et propriétés physico-chimiques de nanotubes de carbone

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    Due to their exceptional properties, carbon nanotubes (CNT) have aroused a huge interest among in industrial fields such as microelectronics, material science and nanomedicine. Nevertheless, the health impacts of this nanomaterial still remain not well understood. The first toxicological studies pointed out that there is no unique response regarding the healthimpact of the CNT, but different toxicological profiles according to their various physicochemical properties. A safer by design approach is thus proposed to identify the parameters decreasing from their production the CNT biological impacts. In this context, this work aimed at studying the impact on the in vitro response from a macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7) of two post-Production treatments: acid functionalization and high temperature annealing.Surface acid groups from functionalized CNT enhanced the pro-Inflammatory response although the cytotoxicity remained stable. On the other hand, acid functionalization, through the elimination of metallic impurities, significantly decreased the oxidative stress. Annealed CNT increased the pro-Inflammatory response compared to the pristine CNT. It thus confirmed the sensitivity of this response for the changes in surface chemistry. However, the high temperature annealing did not influence the oxidative stress, despite of the CNT purification. It suggested that structural defects are also of importance for this response. Besides, the acid functionalization of nano-Graphite and carbon black displayed trends in the macrophage response similar to the acid functionalization of CNT. The comparison of these three carbon-Based nanomaterials seemed to conform to the fibre and platelets paradigm. Eventually, exploratory studies have also been conducted on the interferences between CNT and the toxicity assays, and on the oxidative stress.Les propriĂ©tĂ©s exceptionnelles des nanotubes de carbone (CNT) attirent de nombreux industriels dans les domaines de la microĂ©lectronique, des matĂ©riaux ou de la nanomĂ©decine. NĂ©anmoins, le risque sanitaire liĂ© Ă  ce nanomatĂ©riau reste encore mal compris. Des profils toxicologiques diffĂ©rents, dĂ©pendant des caractĂ©ristiques physico-Chimiques des CNT, ont Ă©tĂ© mis en Ă©vidence. Une approche « safer by design » est proposĂ©e, afin d’identifier les paramĂštres pouvant, dĂšs la conception des CNT, pour limiter le risque sanitaire. Dans ce contexte, cette thĂšse avait pour objectif d’étudier l’impact sur la rĂ©ponse in vitro d’une lignĂ©e de macrophages murins (RAW 264.7) de deux traitements de post-Production de CNT : la fonctionnalisation acide et le recuit haute tempĂ©rature.Les groupements acides en surface des CNT fonctionnalisĂ©s ont entrainĂ© une augmentation de la rĂ©ponse pro-Inflammatoire sans influencer significativement la cytotoxicitĂ©. D’un autre cĂŽtĂ©, la fonctionnalisation acide, principalement par l’élimination des impuretĂ©s mĂ©talliques, a permis de diminuer le stress oxydant. Les CNT recuits Ă  haute tempĂ©rature Ă©taient Ă  l’origine d’une rĂ©ponse pro-Inflammatoire plus importante que les CNT bruts, confirmant lasensibilitĂ© de cette rĂ©ponse biologique Ă  la chimie de surface. En revanche, le recuit n’a pas diminuĂ© significativement le stress oxydant malgrĂ© la purification des CNT, suggĂ©rant l’importance des dĂ©fauts de structure sur cette rĂ©ponse biologique. La fonctionnalisation acide de nano-Graphite et de noir de carbone a eu un impact similaire Ă  celle des CNT sur l’activitĂ© biologique des macrophages. La comparaison de ces trois nanomatĂ©riaux fonctionnalisĂ©s semble s’accorder avec le paradigme mettant en exergue la toxicitĂ© spĂ©cifique des fibres et des plaquettes. Enfin, afin de complĂ©ter ces rĂ©sultats, des Ă©tudes exploratoires sur les interfĂ©rences entre les tests de toxicitĂ© et les CNT, ainsi que sur le stress oxydant, ont Ă©tĂ© conduites

    Understanding the early steps of adaptive resistance to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors in lung cancers

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    Le cancer bronchique porteur d'une mutation activatrice de l'EGFR bĂ©nĂ©ficie du dĂ©veloppement des inhibiteurs de tyrosine kinase de l'EGFR (EGFR-TKI). Cependant l'efficacitĂ© de ces thĂ©rapeutiques bien qu'Ă©lĂ©vĂ©e n'est que transitoire, ces thĂ©rapies se heurtent inĂ©vitablement Ă  des phĂ©nomĂšnes de rĂ©sistance. Des Ă©tudes antĂ©rieures suggĂšrent que cette rĂ©sistance pourrait provenir d'une population de cellules tolĂ©rantes (ou Drug-Tolerant Cells, DTC) qui, aprĂšs un Ă©tat de pseudo-dormance, dĂ©veloppent de nouveaux mĂ©canismes de rĂ©sistance dont des mutations secondaires de l'EGFR, des amplifications de MET, etc.... Cet Ă©tat de tolĂ©rance a Ă©tĂ© mis en Ă©vidence in vitro essentiellement sur une seule lignĂ©e cellulaire et reste assez peu caractĂ©risĂ©. L'objectif de ce travail de thĂšse a Ă©tĂ© d'Ă©largir et d'approfondir l'Ă©tude des mĂ©canismes de rĂ©sistance Ă  diffĂ©rentes lignĂ©es cellulaires tumorales bronchiques porteuses de mutations activatrices de l'EGFR traitĂ©es par des EGFR-TKIs de premiĂšre (erlotinib) ou de derniĂšre gĂ©nĂ©ration (osimertinib). Nos travaux montrent que la durĂ©e de la phase de tolĂ©rance et l'Ă©mergence de clones prolifĂ©ratifs rĂ©sistants aux EGFR-TKIs sont trĂšs hĂ©tĂ©rogĂšnes entre les lignĂ©es Ă©tudiĂ©es mais aussi au sein d'une mĂȘme lignĂ©e. En revanche la majoritĂ© des DTC ont une morphologie Ă©largie associĂ©e Ă  un remodelage du cytosquelette d'actine ainsi qu'Ă  un Ă©tat de pseudo-sĂ©nescence, qui semble prĂ©disposer Ă  la transition Ă©pithĂ©lio-mĂ©senchymateuse (TEM) se developpant progressivement du stade DTC jusqu'au stade prolifĂ©ratif, aprĂšs la perte des caractĂ©ristiques de sĂ©nescence. Des analyses en RNAseq montrent que des signatures gĂ©niques liĂ©es Ă  la contractilitĂ© cellulaire sont retrouvĂ©es au stade DTC dans les trois modĂšles cellulaires Ă©tudiĂ©s. Les travaux antĂ©rieurs du laboratoire ayant montrĂ© le rĂŽle de la petite GTPase RhoB dans la rĂ©gulation du cytosquelette d'actine et dans la rĂ©sistance Ă  l'erlotinib, nous avons investiguĂ© son rĂŽle dans la tolĂ©rance aux EGFR TKIs. RhoB, contrairement Ă  ses homologues RhoA et RhoC, est surexprimĂ©e et suractivĂ©e dans les DTC. De plus son inhibition par la C3 exoenzyme, toxine inhibant spĂ©cifiquement RhoA, RhoB et RhoC, permet l'Ă©radication des DTC et prĂ©vient l'Ă©mergence de clones rĂ©sistants. RhoB Ă©tant rĂ©gulĂ©e par sa prĂ©nylation et notamment sa farnĂ©sylation, l'association d'un inhibiteur de farnĂ©syltransfĂ©rase (FTI) et d'un EGFR-TKI a Ă©tĂ© analysĂ©e et montre qu'elle prĂ©vient trĂšs efficacement l'Ă©mergence de clones prolifĂ©ratifs. Ces rĂ©sultats nous conduisent Ă  proposer cette association comme nouvelle stratĂ©gie thĂ©rapeutique dans les cancers bronchiques porteurs de mutations activatrices de l'EGFR.Lung cancer with EGFR activating mutation benefits from the development of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKI). However, the effectiveness of these therapies, although high, is only transitory, and patients inevitably develop resistance phenomena. Previous studies suggest that this resistance could arise from a population of tolerant cells (or Drug-Tolerant Cells, DTC) which, after a pseudo-dormant state, develop new resistance mechanisms including secondary EGFR mutations, MET amplifications, etc. This state of tolerance has been demonstrated in vitro mainly on only one cell line and remains poorly characterized. The objective of this PhD work was to broaden and deepen the study of the mechanisms of resistance to different lung tumor cell lines harboring EGFR activating mutations treated with first (erlotinib) or latest-generation (osimertinib) EGFR-TKIs. Our work shows that duration of the tolerance phase and then the development of EGFR-TKIs resistant proliferative clones are very heterogeneous between the cell lines studied but also within the same cell line. However, most DTC have an enlarged morphology associated with remodelling of the actin cytoskeleton as well as a pseudo-senescent state, which seems to predispose towards the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) developing progressively from the DTC state to the proliferative state, after loss of senescence characteristics. RNA-seq analyses show that gene signatures related to cell contractility are found at the DTC state in the three cell models studied. As previous work in the laboratory has shown the role of the small GTPase RhoB in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and in resistance to erlotinib, we investigated its role in tolerance to EGFR TKIs. RhoB, unlike its counterparts RhoA and RhoC, is over-expressed and over-activated in DTC. Moreover, its inhibition by the C3 exoenzyme, a toxin that specifically inhibits RhoA, RhoB and RhoC, allows the eradication of DTC and thus prevents the emergence of resistant clones. Since RhoB is regulated by prenylation and in particular by farnesylation, the combination of a farnesyltransferase inhibitor (FTI) and an EGFR-TKI was analyzed and shows that it effectively prevents the emergence of proliferative clones. These results lead us to propose this combination as a new therapeutic strategy in lung cancers carrying EGFR activating mutations

    Three-Dimensional in vitro Models of Healthy and Tumor Brain Microvasculature for Drug and Toxicity Screening

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    International audienceTissue vascularization is essential for its oxygenation and the homogenous diffusion of nutrients. Cutting-edge studies are focusing on the vascularization of three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models of human tissues. The reproduction of the brain vasculature is particularly challenging as numerous cell types are involved. Moreover, the blood-brain barrier, which acts as a selective filter between the vascular system and the brain, is a complex structure to replicate. Nevertheless, tremendous advances have been made in recent years, and several works have proposed promising 3D in vitro models of the brain microvasculature. They incorporate cell co-cultures organized in 3D scaffolds, often consisting of components of the native extracellular matrix (ECM), to obtain a micro-environment similar to the in vivo physiological state. These models are particularly useful for studying adverse effects on the healthy brain vasculature. They provide insights into the molecular and cellular events involved in the pathological evolutions of this vasculature, such as those supporting the appearance of brain cancers. Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is the most common form of brain cancer and one of the most vascularized solid tumors. It is characterized by a high aggressiveness and therapy resistance. Current conventional therapies are unable to prevent the high risk of recurrence of the disease. Most of the new drug candidates fail to pass clinical trials, despite the promising results shown in vitro. The conventional in vitro models are unable to efficiently reproduce the specific features of GBM tumors. Recent studies have indeed suggested a high heterogeneity of the tumor brain vasculature, with the coexistence of intact and leaky regions resulting from the constant remodeling of the ECM by glioma cells. In this review paper, after summarizing the advances in 3D in vitro brain vasculature models, we focus on the latest achievements in vascularized GBM modeling, and the potential applications for both healthy and pathological models as platforms for drug screening and toxicological assays. Particular attention will be paid to discuss the relevance of these models in terms of cell-cell, cell-ECM interactions, vascularization and permeability properties, which are crucial parameters for improving in vitro testing accuracy
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