Inconstant exponents of scaling leaf nitrogen to phosphorus

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), especially the N in Rubisco that drives photosynthesis and the P in rRNA that drives the generation and maintenance of proteins, are essential nutrients for plants. As an important plant leaf trait and allometric “rule” in ecology, the scaling relationship between leaf N and P concentrations is crucial to modelling N and P cycles in terrestrial ecosystems. Previous studies have generalized an invariably “constant” law that N scales roughly as the 2/3 or 3/4 power of P (i.e., N∝Pα=2/3 or 3/4). However, whether the numerical value of the scaling exponent is constant remains unclear and is one of key issues in plant ecology. To address how the numerical value of the scaling exponent changes with functional groups and environmental conditions, we compiled a global data set and found that the exponent varied significantly across different functional groups, latitudinal zones, ecoregions (continents), and sites. The exponents of herbaceous and woody plants were 0.659 and 0.705, respectively. Among woody plants, the exponents of coniferous, deciduous and evergreen broad-leaved species were 0.610, 0.712 and 0.731, respectively. The exponents also showed significant latitudinal patterns, decreasing from tropical to temperate to boreal zones. Further, across the ecoregions of North America, Europe, Asia, Oceania, Africa, and South America, the exponents were 0.603, 0.672, 0.712, 0.786, 0.835, and 1.071, respectively. At sites with a sample size >10, the values fluctuated from 0.366 to 1.928, with an average of 0.841. Such large numerical variations of the N vs. P scaling exponents likely reflect species composition, P-related growth rates, relative nutrient availability of soils and a number of other factors. Our results therefore indicated that there is no canonical numerical value for the leaf N vs. P scaling exponent. The traditional analysis of pooled data at global scale for this scaling relationship hides biologically and ecologically significant variation. This finding has a critical bearing on the parameterization of N and P biogeochemical models

Biomass carbon stocks and their changes in northern China's grasslands during 1982-2006

Grassland covers approximately one-third of the area of China and plays an important role in the global terrestrial carbon (C) cycle. However, little is known about biomass C stocks and dynamics in these grasslands. During 2001-2005, we conducted five consecutive field sampling campaigns to investigate above-and below-ground biomass for northern China's grasslands. Using measurements obtained from 341 sampling sites, together with a NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) time series dataset over 1982-2006, we examined changes in biomass C stock during the past 25 years. Our results showed that biomass C stock in northern China's grasslands was estimated at 557.5 Tg C (1 Tg=10(12) g), with a mean density of 39.5 g C m(-2) for above-ground biomass and 244.6 g C m(-2) for below-ground biomass. An increasing rate of 0.2 Tg C yr(-1) has been observed over the past 25 years, but grassland biomass has not experienced a significant change since the late 1980s. Seasonal rainfall (January-July) was the dominant factor driving temporal dynamics in biomass C stock; however, the responses of grassland biomass to climate variables differed among various grassland types. Biomass in arid grasslands (i.e., desert steppe and typical steppe) was significantly associated with precipitation, while biomass in humid grasslands (i.e., alpine meadow) was positively correlated with mean January-July temperatures. These results suggest that different grassland ecosystems in China may show diverse responses to future climate changes

Nutrient addition affects leaf N-P scaling relationship in Arabidopsis thaliana

Ambient nutrient changes influence the coupling of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in terrestrial ecosystems, but whether it could alter the scaling relationship of plant leaf N to P concentrations remains unclear. Moreover, knowledge about how multi-elemental stoichiometry responds to varying N and P availabilities remains limited. Here we conducted experimental manipulations using Arabidopsis thaliana, with five N and P addition levels and nine repeated experiments. We found that the scaling exponent of leaf N to P concentrations decreased with increasing N levels, but increased with increasing P levels. This suggests that high nutrient availability decreases the variability of its own concentration, but promotes the fluctuation in another tightly associated nutrient concentration in leaves among plant individuals. We call this as Nutrient Availability–Individual Variability Hypothesis. In addition, N and P supply exerted differential influences on the concentrations of multi-elements in leaves. Compared with the green-leaves, the senesced-leaves had higher variability of C, N, P, K and Mg concentrations but lower variability of Ca concentration under varying nutrient availabilities. This suggests that stage-dependent pattern of leaf stoichiometric homeostasis relies on the type of elements, and the elemental feature should be considered when choosing a more favorable tissue in plants for diagnosing the nutrient availability in ambient environments. These findings provide a novel mechanism for understanding the dynamic processes of population structure and functioning under global nutrient changes, which should be incorporated into modeling stoichiometric growth in terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, our study can advance the holistic understanding about plant eco-physiological response and adaption under global nutrient changes from the stoichiometric perspective of multiple elements beyond N and P

Phosphorus accumulates faster than nitrogen globally in freshwater ecosystems under anthropogenic impacts

Combined effects of cumulative nutrient inputs and biogeochemical processes that occur in freshwater under anthropogenic eutrophication could lead to myriad shifts in nitrogen (N):phosphorus (P) stoichiometry in global freshwater ecosystems, but this is not yet well-assessed. Here we evaluated the characteristics of N and P stoichiometries in bodies of freshwater and their herbaceous macrophytes across human-impact levels, regions and periods. Freshwater and its macrophytes had higher N and P concentrations and lower N : P ratios in heavily than lightly human-impacted environments, further evidenced by spatiotemporal comparisons across eutrophication gradients. N and P concentrations in freshwater ecosystems were positively correlated and N : P was negatively correlated with population density in China. These results indicate a faster accumulation of P than N in human-impacted freshwater ecosystems, which could have large effects on the trophic webs and biogeochemical cycles of estuaries and coastal areas by freshwater loadings, and reinforce the importance of rehabilitating these ecosystems

Overestimated biomass carbon pools of the northern mid- and high latitude forests

The biomass carbon (C) stock of forests is one of key parameters for the study of regional and global carbon cycles. Literature reviews shows that inventory-based forest C stocks documented for major countries in the middle and high northern latitudes fall within a narrow range of 36-56 Mg C ha(-1) with an overall area-weighted mean of 43.6 Mg C ha(-1). These estimates are 0.40 to 0.71 times smaller than those (61-108 Mg C ha(-1)) used in previous analysis of balancing the global carbon budget. A statistical analysis, using the global forest biomass database, implies that aboveground biomass per hectare is proportional to forest mean height [biomass in Mg/ha = 10.63 (height in m)] in closed-canopy forests in the study regions, indicating that forest height can be a proxy of regional biomass C stocks. The narrow range of C stocks is likely a result of similar forest height across the northern regions. The lower biomass C stock obtained in this study strongly suggests that the role of the northern forests in the global carbon cycle needs to be re-evaluated. Our findings also suggest that regional estimates of biomass could be readily made from the use of satellite methods such as lidar that can measure forest canopy height over large regions

Diversification of flowering plants in space and time

The rapid diversification and high species richness of flowering plants is regarded as ‘Darwin’s second abominable mystery’. Today the global spatiotemporal pattern of plant diversification remains elusive. Using a newly generated genus-level phylogeny and global distribution data for 14,244 flowering plant genera, we describe the diversification dynamics of angiosperms through space and time. Our analyses show that diversification rates increased throughout the early Cretaceous and then slightly decreased or remained mostly stable until the end of the Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction event 66 million years ago. After that, diversification rates increased again towards the present. Younger genera with high diversification rates dominate temperate and dryland regions, whereas old genera with low diversification dominate the tropics. This leads to a negative correlation between spatial patterns of diversification and genus diversity. Our findings suggest that global changes since the Cenozoic shaped the patterns of flowering plant diversity and support an emerging consensus that diversification rates are higher outside the tropics

The Changes in China's Forests: An Analysis Using the Forest Identity

Changes in forest carbon stocks are a determinant of the regional carbon budget. In the past several decades, China has experienced a pronounced increase in forest area and density. However, few comprehensive analyses have been conducted. In this study, we employed the Forest Identity concept to evaluate the changing status of China's forests over the past three decades, using national forest inventory data of five periods (1977–1981, 1984–1988, 1989–1993, 1994–1998, and 1999–2003). The results showed that forest area and growing stock density increased by 0.51% and 0.44% annually over the past three decades, while the conversion ratio of forest biomass to growing stock declined by 0.10% annually. These developments resulted in a net annual increase of 0.85% in forest carbon sequestration, which is equivalent to a net biomass carbon uptake of 43.8 Tg per year (1 Tg = 1012 g). This increase can be attributed to the national reforestation/afforestation programs, environmentally enhanced forest growth and economic development as indicated by the average gross domestic product