Bilan hydrologique d'un marais littoral à vocation agricole : Le marais de Moëze (Charente-Maritime, France)

En France, les sécheresses consécutives des années 1985, 1986, 1989 et 1990 ont mis en lumière les problèmes relatifs à l'alimentation en eau potable, l'irrigation des terres agricoles et la préservation des écosystèmes aquatiques. Dans le cas des zones humides, continentales et littorales, caractérisées par une compartimentation hydraulique souvent complexe, le manque de connaissance se fait particulièrement sentir. Bien que de nombreux travaux aient permis d'évaluer l'évaporation des masses d'eau et l'évapotranspiration de certaines espèces d'hydrophytes et d'hélophytes, les études débouchant sur des bilans quantitatifs restent peu fréquentes. Le bilan hydrologique du marais de Moëze (2250 ha) a été calculé par décade entre le 11/06/89 et le 31/08/89. Il prend en compte le débit au droit de l'ouvrage d'alimentation, les volumes prélevés pour l'irrigation hors marais, les infiltrations et l'évapotransplration sur les 318 km de canaux. L'estimation de la consommation d'eau des parcelles est globalisée au niveau des mesures d'infiltration.Les pertes par infiltration sont secondaires (9,4 %) au regard des volumes prélevés pour l'irrigation (38,0 %) et évapotransplrés par les canaux (43,7 %) dont 51,1 % uniquement par les 28,6 % des plans d'eau colonisés par Typha latifolia.L'optimisation de la gestion estivale de l'eau d'un marais littoral agricole nécessite dans un premier temps de minimiser les pertes. C'est essentiellement sur la consommation d'eau des canaux colonisés par les hélophytes que l'on peut intervenir. Nous proposons un abaque qui permet d'évaluer l'importance des économies d'eau réalisées en fonction de plusieurs scénarios d'aménagement du réseau hydraulique.In France, the drought that occurred during the years 1985, 1986, 1989 and 1990 have emphazised the problems of freshwater supplies for human consumption, for irrigation and for the conservation of aquatic systems. Today the water has to be economized through a rationalized management. Water balance must be evaluated in order to compare supply an demand. Hydrological functioning is particularly badly known as far as continental and coastal wetlands are concerned, probably because of a generally very complex hydrological partition. Many papers deal with the evaporation rate from a clear water surface or the evapotranspiration rate from several species of hydrophytes and halophytes. However studies of quantitative water budgets of wetlands remain few in number.This paper reports an analysis of the budget summer water in that was a salt marsh now containing freshwater. The 25 km2 marsh of Moëze is located on the French Atlantic coast; it has been progressively constituted by filling up a tidal bay since the flandrien period. The soils correspond to fluvio-marine silts, locally called « bri » accumulated over several tens of meters thick. The marsh is bounded on the North by the ancient limestone coast, on the South by the Arnoult River, and on the West by the coastline. Its drainage network includes permanently flowing main canals and also small silted-up ditches which sometimes dry up in summer and are largely colonized by aquatic plants, particularly Typha latifolia. The channels network is very dense (144 meters of ditches per hectare) and complex because of a close connection between all the canals and ditches. The regional oceanic climate is characterized by a surplus water balance from October to April (+ 315 mm) and quite a short one tram May to September (-338 mm).The important terms of the water budget equation in this study were : the quantity of water pumped from the Arnoult River through the inflow sluicegate (Qa), the precipitations (P), the irrigation out of the marsh (lr), the evapotranspiration of water bodies (Epo), the seepage through canals and ditches (ls), and the change in water soil strorage (Vs). These terms are not equally susceptible to be measured. Groundwater seepage and evapotranspiration are difficult to measure and they are often determined by difference, but, they contain the residual error of ail the terms. The methods to evaluate each term of water budget were carried as follows :1. As the inflow gate functions as a siphon, the flow rate (Qa) was calculated with the drowned orifice formula (LENCASTRE, 1984). The upstream and downstream water levels were permanently recorded by 2 limnigraphs. The upstream and downstream water velocities were measured every 2 days with a micro-currentmeter.2. The precipitation values (P) used in the water budget equation correspond to the average of 4 rain gauges placed around the marsh.3. The evapotranspiration of the channel network (Epo) was directly estimated through 4 experimental floating tanks (0.50 x 0.55 x 1.05 m size) previously used by GIRAUD (1985). One of the tanks was placed in clear water, the others was planted the typical aquatic vegetation of the marsh (Lemna sp., Ceratophyllum sp., and Typhia latifolia). The drop the water levels in the tanks corresponded to the loss of water due tou evapotranspiration. All the tanks were filled up to a fixed level, and the amount of water added, measured every 2 days.4. The outputs for irrigation (Ir) concern 298 ha of maïze out of the marsh, and 23 farmers. The water amounts taken off were estimated form an inquiry of irrigation practices associated to a field control.5. The water losses by seepage (ls) through canals and ditches were directly measured on the field by using the closed basin method. A length of canal was closed by 2 watertight bulkheads. The fall of water level was recorded and the amount of water added to maintain a fixed level was measured. This method is considered by KRAATZ (1977) as being the most accurate specially for low seepage. The fall of water level never exceeds 10 % of the water depth in the basin. 34 canals and ditches in the marsh were sampled. According to CHEVALLIER et al. (1984), 3 parameters influencing the soil permeability were measured : granulometry, CaC03 content and sodicity. After the sampling plan we have retained 4 experimental canals (average length =47 m, average water surface = 135 m2, average depth = 0.44 m).6. The water strorage in the soil (Vs) was evaluated by analyzing the groundwater table fluctuations and moisture changes.The water budget calculated for 10-day periods depending on the climatology calculations, from 10th June 1989 to 31st August 1989. The water losses due to seepage were secondary (9.4 %) compared to the amounts of water taken off by irrigation (38.0 %) and channel network evapotranspiration (43.7 %). The water consumption of helophytes such as Typhia latifolia was 2 to 3 times higher than the evaporation of a clear surface water body as shown in figure 3. In the marsh of Moëze, 51.1 % of channel evapotranspiration was due to the colonization by Typhia latifolia of the canals and ditches although they represent only 28.6 % of the channel network surface.This study shows that is possible to quantify a water budget for a large scale wetland from field measurements associated to experimental approaches, with a satisfactory accuracy : less than 10 %. To reduce the water consumption of the marsh of Moëze, three essential recommendations may be given : the reduction of the global channel network surface, the cleaning of a part of ditches colonized by Typhia latifolia, or the combination of both techniques. According to the different management schemes, it is possible to predict the amounts of freshwater saved (fig. 5)

Bilan hydrologique d'un marais littoral à vocation agricole : Le marais de Moëze (Charente-Maritime, France)

En France, les sécheresses consécutives des années 1985, 1986, 1989 et 1990 ont mis en lumière les problèmes relatifs à l'alimentation en eau potable, l'irrigation des terres agricoles et la préservation des écosystèmes aquatiques. Dans le cas des zones humides, continentales et littorales, caractérisées par une compartimentation hydraulique souvent complexe, le manque de connaissance se fait particulièrement sentir. Bien que de nombreux travaux aient permis d'évaluer l'évaporation des masses d'eau et l'évapotranspiration de certaines espèces d'hydrophytes et d'hélophytes, les études débouchant sur des bilans quantitatifs restent peu fréquentes. Le bilan hydrologique du marais de Moëze (2250 ha) a été calculé par décade entre le 11/06/89 et le 31/08/89. Il prend en compte le débit au droit de l'ouvrage d'alimentation, les volumes prélevés pour l'irrigation hors marais, les infiltrations et l'évapotransplration sur les 318 km de canaux. L'estimation de la consommation d'eau des parcelles est globalisée au niveau des mesures d'infiltration.Les pertes par infiltration sont secondaires (9,4 %) au regard des volumes prélevés pour l'irrigation (38,0 %) et évapotransplrés par les canaux (43,7 %) dont 51,1 % uniquement par les 28,6 % des plans d'eau colonisés par Typha latifolia.L'optimisation de la gestion estivale de l'eau d'un marais littoral agricole nécessite dans un premier temps de minimiser les pertes. C'est essentiellement sur la consommation d'eau des canaux colonisés par les hélophytes que l'on peut intervenir. Nous proposons un abaque qui permet d'évaluer l'importance des économies d'eau réalisées en fonction de plusieurs scénarios d'aménagement du réseau hydraulique.In France, the drought that occurred during the years 1985, 1986, 1989 and 1990 have emphazised the problems of freshwater supplies for human consumption, for irrigation and for the conservation of aquatic systems. Today the water has to be economized through a rationalized management. Water balance must be evaluated in order to compare supply an demand. Hydrological functioning is particularly badly known as far as continental and coastal wetlands are concerned, probably because of a generally very complex hydrological partition. Many papers deal with the evaporation rate from a clear water surface or the evapotranspiration rate from several species of hydrophytes and halophytes. However studies of quantitative water budgets of wetlands remain few in number.This paper reports an analysis of the budget summer water in that was a salt marsh now containing freshwater. The 25 km2 marsh of Moëze is located on the French Atlantic coast; it has been progressively constituted by filling up a tidal bay since the flandrien period. The soils correspond to fluvio-marine silts, locally called « bri » accumulated over several tens of meters thick. The marsh is bounded on the North by the ancient limestone coast, on the South by the Arnoult River, and on the West by the coastline. Its drainage network includes permanently flowing main canals and also small silted-up ditches which sometimes dry up in summer and are largely colonized by aquatic plants, particularly Typha latifolia. The channels network is very dense (144 meters of ditches per hectare) and complex because of a close connection between all the canals and ditches. The regional oceanic climate is characterized by a surplus water balance from October to April (+ 315 mm) and quite a short one tram May to September (-338 mm).The important terms of the water budget equation in this study were : the quantity of water pumped from the Arnoult River through the inflow sluicegate (Qa), the precipitations (P), the irrigation out of the marsh (lr), the evapotranspiration of water bodies (Epo), the seepage through canals and ditches (ls), and the change in water soil strorage (Vs). These terms are not equally susceptible to be measured. Groundwater seepage and evapotranspiration are difficult to measure and they are often determined by difference, but, they contain the residual error of ail the terms. The methods to evaluate each term of water budget were carried as follows :1. As the inflow gate functions as a siphon, the flow rate (Qa) was calculated with the drowned orifice formula (LENCASTRE, 1984). The upstream and downstream water levels were permanently recorded by 2 limnigraphs. The upstream and downstream water velocities were measured every 2 days with a micro-currentmeter.2. The precipitation values (P) used in the water budget equation correspond to the average of 4 rain gauges placed around the marsh.3. The evapotranspiration of the channel network (Epo) was directly estimated through 4 experimental floating tanks (0.50 x 0.55 x 1.05 m size) previously used by GIRAUD (1985). One of the tanks was placed in clear water, the others was planted the typical aquatic vegetation of the marsh (Lemna sp., Ceratophyllum sp., and Typhia latifolia). The drop the water levels in the tanks corresponded to the loss of water due tou evapotranspiration. All the tanks were filled up to a fixed level, and the amount of water added, measured every 2 days.4. The outputs for irrigation (Ir) concern 298 ha of maïze out of the marsh, and 23 farmers. The water amounts taken off were estimated form an inquiry of irrigation practices associated to a field control.5. The water losses by seepage (ls) through canals and ditches were directly measured on the field by using the closed basin method. A length of canal was closed by 2 watertight bulkheads. The fall of water level was recorded and the amount of water added to maintain a fixed level was measured. This method is considered by KRAATZ (1977) as being the most accurate specially for low seepage. The fall of water level never exceeds 10 % of the water depth in the basin. 34 canals and ditches in the marsh were sampled. According to CHEVALLIER et al. (1984), 3 parameters influencing the soil permeability were measured : granulometry, CaC03 content and sodicity. After the sampling plan we have retained 4 experimental canals (average length =47 m, average water surface = 135 m2, average depth = 0.44 m).6. The water strorage in the soil (Vs) was evaluated by analyzing the groundwater table fluctuations and moisture changes.The water budget calculated for 10-day periods depending on the climatology calculations, from 10th June 1989 to 31st August 1989. The water losses due to seepage were secondary (9.4 %) compared to the amounts of water taken off by irrigation (38.0 %) and channel network evapotranspiration (43.7 %). The water consumption of helophytes such as Typhia latifolia was 2 to 3 times higher than the evaporation of a clear surface water body as shown in figure 3. In the marsh of Moëze, 51.1 % of channel evapotranspiration was due to the colonization by Typhia latifolia of the canals and ditches although they represent only 28.6 % of the channel network surface.This study shows that is possible to quantify a water budget for a large scale wetland from field measurements associated to experimental approaches, with a satisfactory accuracy : less than 10 %. To reduce the water consumption of the marsh of Moëze, three essential recommendations may be given : the reduction of the global channel network surface, the cleaning of a part of ditches colonized by Typhia latifolia, or the combination of both techniques. According to the different management schemes, it is possible to predict the amounts of freshwater saved (fig. 5)

Front-end Electronic for the Calice ECAL Physics Prototype

eConf: C050318 : 0902A 18-channel low-noise front-end chip has been designed and produced to read out the 1cm² silicon PIN diodes of the CALICE WSi physics prototype calorimeter. Each channel includes a multi-gain low noise charge preamplifier followed by a bi-gain shaper and a track and hold device. A single output allows reading out every channel at 5 MHz through a multiplexer. Voltage swing is 2.5V with a 5‰ non-linearity. The measured dynamic range on a fixed gain is larger than 13 bits. The gain of the preamplifier can be tuned from 0.3V/pC to 5V/pC with 4 bits. The shaping is done by two fixed-gain shapers (gain 1 and gain 10). Output measured noise is 3000 e- with a detector capacitance of 100pF and a MIP around 42000 e-. Crosstalk is around 1‰. 1000 chips have been produced to equip the physics prototype. Several version of PCB have been designed, taking into account the thickness constraint. A first version with the front-end chip outside the detector has been produced and has been running since January 2005 at DESY, exhibiting an overall MIP/noise ratio of 9. A new thinner version embedding the chip inside the calorimeter has been prototyped and is ready to go in test beam

How persistent are the impacts of logging roads on Central African forest vegetation?

Logging roads can trigger tropical forest degradation by reducing the integrity of the ecosystem and providing access for encroachment. Therefore, road management is crucial in reconciling selective logging and biodiversity conservation. Most logging roads are abandoned after timber harvesting; however, little is known about their long-term impacts on forest vegetation and accessibility, especially in Central Africa. In 11 logging concessions in the Congo Basin, we field-sampled a chronosequence of roads that, judging from satellite images, had been abandoned between 1985 and 2015. We assessed recovery of timber resources, tree diversity and above-ground biomass in three zones: the road track, the road edge (where forest had been cleared during road construction) and the adjacent logged forest. The density of commercial timber species <15 cm d.b.h. was almost three times higher in the road track (321 individuals ha−1) and edge (267) than in the logged adjacent forest (97). Over time, tree species diversity converged to a comparable level between roads and adjacent forests, along with an increase in canopy closure. The average width of forest clearing for road construction was 20 m, covering a total 0·76% of the forest area inside concessions. After 15 years following abandonment, road tracks had recovered 24 Mg ha−1 of above-ground woody biomass, which was 6% of that in the adjacent forest, while road edges had accumulated 167 Mg ha−1 (42%). Ten years after abandonment, roads were no longer penetrable by poachers on motorcycles. An exotic herb species was fully replaced by dominant Marantaceae that have even higher abundance in the adjacent forest. • Synthesis and applications. Our evidence of vegetation recovery suggests that logging roads are mostly transient elements in the forest landscapes. However, given the slow recovery of biomass on abandoned road tracks, we advocate both reducing the width of forest clearing for road construction and reopening old logging roads for future harvests, rather than building new roads in intact forests. Road edges seem suitable for post-logging silviculture which needs to be assisted by removing dominant herbs during the early years after abandonment while the road track is still accessible. (Résumé d'auteur

The EU and US : friends or rivals

As boas relações entre a União Europeia e os EUA são essenciais para a estabilidade global. Mas as actuais relações transatlânticas permanecem constrangidas sobretudo como resultado da guerra no Iraque e da abordagem unilateral da primeira administração George W. Bush. As divergências entre UE-EUA têm aumentado nas áreas políticas e estratégicas bem como nas áreas económicas e sociais. Uma das maiores divergências incide sobre a governação global e sobre o papel atribuído à ONU e a outras instituições multilaterais. Também existe um elevado grau de anti-americanismo (ou de oposição às políticas da administração Bush) na Europa, e de ressentimento para com a Europa (ou melhor, para com a França e Alemanha) nos EUA. A UE não tem ideia de como lidar com a única superpotência mundial. Normalmente prefere- se o bilateral aos canais europeus. Mas as actuais estruturas UE-EUA não permitem uma discussão séria sobre muitas destas diferenças. Nem a OTAN é uma estrutura adequada para um diálogo estratégico transatlântico, como o chanceler Schroeder referiu na Conferencia Wehrkunde, em Munique, em Janeiro de 2005

Dynamics of vascular branching morphogenesis: the effect of blood and tissue flow

Vascularization of embryonic organs or tumors starts from a primitive lattice of capillaries. Upon perfusion, this lattice is remodeled into branched arteries and veins. Adaptation to mechanical forces is implied to play a major role in arterial patterning. However, numerical simulations of vessel adaptation to haemodynamics has so far failed to predict any realistic vascular pattern. We present in this article a theoretical modeling of vascular development in the yolk sac based on three features of vascular morphogenesis: the disconnection of side branches from main branches, the reconnection of dangling sprouts ('dead ends'), and the plastic extension of interstitial tissue, which we have observed in vascular morphogenesis. We show that the effect of Poiseuille flow in the vessels can be modeled by aggregation of random walkers. Solid tissue expansion can be modeled by a Poiseuille (parabolic) deformation, hence by deformation under hits of random walkers. Incorporation of these features, which are of a mechanical nature, leads to realistic modeling of vessels, with important biological consequences. The model also predicts the outcome of simple mechanical actions, such as clamping of vessels or deformation of tissue by the presence of obstacles. This study offers an explanation for flow-driven control of vascular branching morphogenesis