Role of Age and Education as the Determinant of Income Inequality in Poland: Decomposition of the Mean Logarithmic Deviation

Measures of inequality can be used to illustrate inequality between and within groups, but the choice of the appropriate measure can have different implications. This study focused on the Mean Logarithmic Deviation, the measure proposed by Theil and based on the techniques of statistical information theory. The MLD was selected because of its attractive properties: fulfillment of the principle of monotonicity and the possibility of additive decomposition. The following study objectives were formulated: (1) to assess the degree of inequality in the population and in the distinguished subgroups, (2) to determine the extent to which education and age influence the level of inequality, and (3) to ascertain what factors contribute to changes in the level of inequality in Poland. The study confirmed an association between the level of education and the average income of the groups distinguished on this basis. The education level of the household head remains an important determinant of household income inequality in Poland, despite the decline in the "educational bonus". The study also found that differences in the age of the household head had a smaller effect on income inequality than the level of education. However, it can be concluded that the higher share of older people may contribute to an increase in income inequality between groups, as the income from pension in Poland is more homogeneous than the income from work in younger groups. Moreover, the current paper seeks to situate Theil’s approach in the context of scholarly writings since 1967

The Impact of Family and Child-Allowances on Income Inequality in Poland: Gini Decomposition by Income Sources

Research background: This paper analyses how different income sources affect the level of inequality in Poland, with focus on the role of family and children related allowances in decreasing income inequalities in 2015–2017. Therefore, the study has focused on the various subgroups of households with children. Purpose: The paper is aimed at examining the extent to which family and children related allowances affect household income inequality and identifying whether they affect inequality in various groups of households in the same way. Methodology: The study was carried out on micro-data gathered by Eurostat. To examine the extent to which different income components affect income inequality, we decompose the Gini coefficient according to the method introduced by Lerman and Yitzhaki. Results: Our study revealed that for most households with children, the inequality-reducing effect due to family and children related allowances increased in 2017 compared to 2015. However, despite the additional child-raising benefit under the “Family 500+” programme, income taxes and social security contributions remained by far the most important factor in reducing household income inequalities in Poland. Novelty: To our knowledge, no study has yet attempted to assess the extent to which family and child- allowances affect income inequality based on real data. The present analysis takes a step towards filling this gap. Unlike other studies based on microsimulation, in this paper we made use of the representative micro- data derived from the EU-SILC study

Supporting the Development and Well-being of People in Late Adulthood

The article outlines the current and proposed activities supporting elderly people, related to the ageing of sick individuals and the process of usual ageing (both discussed separately). These activities are divided into direct (involving individuals) and indirect ones (focusing on the environment). The article presents the key principles and types of supportive activities as well as the theoretical concepts underpinning them, i.e. the theory of human development and the concept of successful ageing.3426528116Studia Edukacyjn

The “other” in the classroom

The article features a description and an analysis of the ‘other’ in the classroom – i.e. a student who differs (significantly) from their peers through, for example, a distinct personality trait, behavior, looks, background or religion. It also demonstrates how a classroom and the ‘other’, function in terms of their mutual dependencies. Finally, the article discusses effective educational methods designed for a classroom, where the ‘other’ is present.The article features a description and an analysis of the ‘other’ in the classroom – i.e. a student who differs (significantly) from their peers through, for example, a distinct personality trait, behavior, looks, background or religion. It also demonstrates how a classroom and the ‘other’, function in terms of their mutual dependencies. Finally, the article discusses effective educational methods designed for a classroom, where the ‘other’ is present

Plasma membrane and cell wall properties of an aspen hybrid (Populus tremula × tremuloides) parenchyma cells under the influence of salt stress

The effect of salinity on cell turgor, plasma membrane permeability and cell wall elasticity has been measured in petioles of an aspen hybrid using the cell pressure probe. Control plants were grown in soil without the addition of NaCl and treated plants were grown in soil with 50 mM of NaCl for 1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks. In parenchyma cells from Populus tremula 9 tremuloides petioles with an increased level of NaCl in the soil: (a) turgor pressure was reduced after 1 week of treatment but afterward it was similar to untreated plants, (b) the value of elastic modulus of the cell walls increased, and (c) hydraulic conductivity of the plasma membrane of treated plants decreased in comparison to untreated ones. No histological differences and distribution of JIM5 antibody between the petioles of plants grown under salinity and the untreated were found. In cell walls of parenchyma and collenchyma from plants grown under salinity, the presence of pectic epitopes recognized by JIM7 antibodies was increased in comparison to the control plants. The obtained results indicate that under salt stress the permeability of water through plasma membrane is disturbed, cell walls became more rigid but the turgor pressure did not change

KUZNETS HYPOTHESIS OF INCOME INEQUALITY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM EU

The article aims at identification of the determinants of income inequality in the EU countries in the period of 2004-2013. Specifically, we test for the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between income inequality and the level of economic development measured by the GDP per capita, as it is predicted by the Kuznets hypothesis. The data come from Eurostat (EU-SILC), International Monetary Fund and World Bank. Our results provide evidence for a U-shaped, rather than the inverted U, relationship. We find that unemployment rate and tertiary education attainment are statistically significantly and positively related to income inequality. Also old-age dependency ratio is significant in the EU15 countries, while a share of self-employed is significant in the new member states

Income Inequality in the EU – Dynamic Panel Model

The article aims at examination of the shape of relationship between income inequality and the level of economic development measured by GDP per capita in 27 European Union countries in the period of 2004-2014. It also aims at identification of determinants of income inequality. Specifically, we test for the existence of an inverted U-shaped curve, as it is predicted by the standard Kuznets hypothesis, and J-shaped curve following the approach adopted by Deutsch and Silber (2004) and Anand and Kanbur (1993). The data come from Eurostat EU-SILC database (European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions), World Bank and International Monetary Fund. In the EU-27 group of countries we contradict the Kuznets hypothesis – our results provide evidence for a U-shaped, rather than the inverted U relationship. It also follows from our analysis that our data cover only the descending part of the U, that is a shape of inverted J

Income Inequality in Poland and the United Kingdom. Decomposition of the Theil Index

The aim of the article is to compare inequalities of the household disposable income in Poland and the UK. We analyse the Theil index for types of households in 2005 and 2014. We also aim at finding out how household types contribute to the level of overall income inequality in the UK and Poland. We calculate and decompose the Theil indices based on the equivalised disposable household income from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) database. We find that “two adults below 65 with no dependent children” household group is the main contributor to the overall Theil index in both countries. We also conclude that the between-group component of the Theil index decreases in Poland and increases in the UK and, in effect, in 2014, it is twice as high in the UK as in Poland

DOES EDUCATION AFFECT INCOME INEQUALITY? A COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF FOURTEEN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

For years, income inequality and its sources have remained the focus of attention of many researchers. The present article aims to expand and update the knowledge concerning the dimensions of household income inequality in European countries. The paper focuses on the association between the educational attainment and income inequality. It is hypothesised that the different level of income inequality observed in different countries can depend on the educational attainment of the society. Therefore, the main research objective of the article is to explain how the education level of the head of household affects income inequality in fourteen West-EU countries. The analysis also has two empirical aims: to assess the divergence in the mean incomes of the distinguished subgroups of households and to measure how much of the overall inequality can be attributed to the distance between these subgroups rather than to inequalities within them. To this end, the Generalised Entropy measures were applied, using the representative microdata derived from the EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC). The obtained results indicate that the education level has a significant impact on the income variability between households, with some differences between countries. The study also revealed that the higher proportion of people with the lowest level of education, the higher inter-group income differentiation. Moreover, the study demonstrates that most countries with a high proportion of well-educated people also show low levels of inequality at the bottom of the distribution. This suggests that income inequality could be controlled through the development of education

DOES EDUCATION AFFECT INCOME INEQUALITY? A COMPARATIVE REVIEW OF FOURTEEN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

For years, income inequality and its sources have remained the focus of attention of many researchers. The present article aims to expand and update the knowledge concerning the dimensions of household income inequality in European countries. The paper focuses on the association between the educational attainment and income inequality. It is hypothesised that the different level of income inequality observed in different countries can depend on the educational attainment of the society. Therefore, the main research objective of the article is to explain how the education level of the head of household affects income inequality in fourteen West-EU countries. The analysis also has two empirical aims: to assess the divergence in the mean incomes of the distinguished subgroups of households and to measure how much of the overall inequality can be attributed to the distance between these subgroups rather than to inequalities within them. To this end, the Generalised Entropy measures were applied, using the representative microdata derived from the EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC). The obtained results indicate that the education level has a significant impact on the income variability between households, with some differences between countries. The study also revealed that the higher proportion of people with the lowest level of education, the higher inter-group income differentiation. Moreover, the study demonstrates that most countries with a high proportion of well-educated people also show low levels of inequality at the bottom of the distribution. This suggests that income inequality could be controlled through the development of education