Drought and disaster in a revolutionary age: colonial Antigua during the American Independence War

The American War of Independence (1775-1783) spelled crisis for the British West Indies. Trade embargos between rebelling and loyal territories, losses to American pirates and hostilities with other European states left the Crown’s tropical Atlantic colonies short of the imported supplies that normally sustained their populations and commerce. Historians have studied the dynamics and consequences of these developments in considerable detail, at both regional and local scales, but have tended to focus on economic, social and political dimensions of the subject matter. Although some investigations have highlighted that climate variability compounded agricultural and subsistence problems in certain locations, the role of climate has rarely been subject to the same level of scrutiny. The present paper addresses this theme by focusing on the Lesser Antillean island of Antigua and the severe drought which gripped the colony during the war period. Through extensive analysis of original, largely unpublished archival sources, the implications of deficient rainfall for human livelihoods, fiscal stability and governmental crisis management are examined. By supplementing findings with evidence from other episodes of warfare which coincided with extreme climate phenomena in the late 1700s and early 1800s, it is argued that successive years of drought were pivotal in defining the severe human and economic losses sustained in Antigua during the American independence conflict. The critical agency of this weather event must, however, be understood as the product of its dynamic interaction with the precarious backdrop of a colonial regime under profound socio-economic and geopolitical stress

Gordon Valentine Manley and his contribution to the study of climate change: a review of his life and work

British climatologist and geographer, Gordon Manley (1902–1980), is perhaps best known for his pioneering work on climate variability in the UK, for establishing the Central England Temperature series and, for his pivotal role in demonstrating the powerful relationship between climate, weather, and culture in post-World War II Britain. Yet Manley made many contributions, both professional and popular, to climate change debates in the twentieth century, where climate change is broadly understood to be changes over a range of temporal and spatial scales rather than anthropogenic warming per se. This review first establishes how Manley's work, including that on snow and ice, was influenced by key figures in debates over climatic amelioration around the North Atlantic between 1920s and 1950s. His research exploring historical climate variability in the UK using documentary sources is then discussed. His perspectives on the relationship between climate changes and cultural history are reviewed, paying particular attention to his interpretation of this relationship as it played out in the UK. Throughout, the review aims to show Manley to be a fieldworker and an empiricist and reveals how he remained committed to rigorous scientific investigation despite changing trends within his academic discipline

Water and vertical territory: the volatile and hidden historical geographies of Derbyshire’s lead mining soughs, 1650s–1830s

This paper is concerned with the complex subterranean politics of lead mining in the Derbyshire Peak District. We focus specifically on the implications of lead mining ‘soughs’ – underground channels driven to drain water out of mines to allow for mineral extraction. Built during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, soughs were substantial, capital and labour intensive projects which served a key function in the refashioning of subterranean and surface hydrological landscapes. They were ‘driven’ at a time when water was both a major hindrance to mining endeavour and the primary energy source for industrial expansion, such that historical disputes surrounding sough drainage were common. Here, we draw on unpublished historical legal records to explore the ways in which vertical conceptualisations of space were central to the legal discourse over soughs and extend the so called ‘vertical turn’ in geography to include subterranean proto-historical landscapes. Drawing on a high profile conflict between English entrepreneur Richard Arkwright and Conservative politician Francis Hurt, we go some way to addressing recent claims for more ethnographic detail in studies of verticality by considering the people who legally and physically negotiated sough development below as well as above ground. We also illustrate the range of temporalities which framed sough developments and highlight the cross-generational nature of the legal disputes over soughs and the productive landscapes they drained

Climate, Conflict and Society: Changing Responses to Weather Extremes in Nineteenth Century Zululand

Changing climates affect human societies differently depending on societal structures, cultural perceptions and their relative vulnerability and resilience. In this study, we explore the complex relationship between climate, conflict and society in nineteenth century Zululand. The paper first reviews current debates surrounding the links between climatic change, societal transformation and the rise of the Zulu Kingdom from the late-eighteenth to early-nineteenth centuries. It then considers new empirical evidence relating to conflict and socio-economic changes at a local scale in Zululand from the early-mid-nineteenth century onwards, using a combination of unpublished archival materials written by missionaries and other observers, together with oral histories and traditions. Our analysis highlights how changing precipitation patterns, especially towards drier conditions, may have contributed to changes in societal responses, including dominant narratives about rain-control, the migration and dissolution of society, and conflicts and unrest. We suggest that temporal differences in these responses were contingent upon the role of leaders, power structures, and the willingness and ability of leaders to yield this power. The case of nineteenth century Zululand exemplifies the complexity of environment-society interactions, and strengthens the call for a thorough scrutiny of the narratives of social unrest in specific socio-cultural contexts

Dealing with the deluge of historical weather data: the example of the TEMPEST database

People have long been interested in the history of weather, particularly extremes, and chronologies of past events drawing on information from written records, have been compiled and published throughout history. In recent years, concern over current and future weather and climate has triggered a new level of interest in past weather events and their impacts. This interest, alongside the development of digital humanities research methods has resulted in a rapid growth in the number of online databases relating to historic weather and climate around the world. This paper reviews this expansion with reference to a range of examples, before documenting the design and creation of one such database, TEMPEST, an online repository for extreme weather history in the UK. TEMPEST has been created as the major output of the AHRC funded project ?Spaces of Experience and Horizons of Expectation: Extreme Weather in the UK, Past, Present and Future? (2013-2016). Unlike the majority of existing databases that rely on published materials, TEMPEST?s records are drawn from primary research into original documentary sources held in archives around the UK. The c. 18,000 records that TEMPEST currently contains offer personalised and geo-referenced insights into the relationship between society and extreme weather in the UK spanning a period of over 400 years. We conclude this paper by outlining some potential applications for TEMPEST, and suggesting directions for future research and resources in historical weather. We also consider broader issues for the digital humanities.publishersversionPeer reviewe

The role of drought in agrarian crisis and social change:the famine of the 1890s in south-eastern Africa

During the second half of the 1890s, south-eastern Africa was hit by a drought-driven ecological crisis. Using records previously unexploited for climate and climate impact research, and which cover the area from modern-day Zimbabwe and Botswana to eastern South Africa, this study explores the complexity of this crisis through an analysis of the spatial extent, duration and severity of the regional drought and its associated socio-economic and environmental repercussions. This interdisciplinary study stands at the nexus of environmental, economic and social history. The records used include (a) British administrative sources, (b) reports and letters by members of various Protestant missionary societies from diverse environments across the study area, together with (c) local newspapers. Analysis of these materials reveals that generally the period was marked by a sequence of considerably delayed rainy seasons, which in turn negatively impacted upon the rain-fed agriculture. Below-average levels of summer rainfall also adversely affected the development of young crops. The drought was more severe and continuous in the interior of the region than towards the Indian Ocean coast. The prolonged dry conditions were accompanied by, and likely exacerbated, locust outbreaks and the spread of cattle plague (Rinderpest). We demonstrate in this paper that drought, as the original driver of the crisis, triggered a cascade of responses from harvest failure to famine and ultimately led to profound socio-economic change

Environmental changes in the Zirahuen Basin, Michoacan, Mexico, during the last 1000 years

Lago de Zirahuen (19degrees 260 N, 101degrees 44' W) lies within a montane basin in highland Michoacan, Mexico at 2075 m a. s. l. The lake basin has high recreational value and is promoted as a tourist attraction. Four short ( lt 1 m), sediment- water interface cores were used to investigate Late Holocene environmental change. The cores span approximately the last 1000 years, based on Pb-210 dating, AMS C-14 dating and tephrochronology. Cesium-137, Americium-241 and tephra layers from Volcan Paricutin (AD 1943 - 1952) and Volcan Jorullo ( AD 1759 - 1774) provide independent age markers. Cores were analysed for diatoms, magnetic susceptibility and heavy metals ( iron, lead, manganese, copper and zinc). Drier climate around 1000 years BP is tentatively inferred from the diatom assemblage and is concordant with other regional records. Increased soil erosion between ca. AD 1100 and AD 1550 may be associated with Pre-Hispanic settlement in the basin, but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. A period of catchment stability occurred during the early Colonial Period, ca. AD 1550 - 1750. The dramatic decline in the indigenous population following the Spanish Conquest in 1521 may have promoted vegetation recovery on the basin slopes. After the mid-18th century, a significant change in diatom species composition is observed along with an increase in soil erosion, as inferred from the magnetic susceptibility profile. Concentrations of copper and lead also increased. These changes are associated with the establishment of a copper smelting industry in the basin and increased Colonial agricultural development. Recently, tourist developments and commercial agriculture have impacted on the basin. The diatom flora has changed dramatically in the last 20 years, apparently in response to the onset of cultural eutrophication. The palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests that the lake is responding rapidly to land use intensification in the basin, which may have implications for future developments