The composition and analysis of butter fat

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An Exploratory Analysis of Pharmaceutical Price Disparities and Their Implications Among Six Developed Nations

In our study of 43 drugs, prescription drug prices in several wealthy nations (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, and the U.K.) were much lower than in the U.S. on average, well below relative per capita GDP. There was relatively little difference among the five foreign nations. All this is consistent with previous research. After separating less-unique from moreunique drugs, however, important new findings emerged. Relative prices for less-unique drugs, which are subject to strong competition, were at about half the U.S. level. We suggest that this reflects the exercise of monopsony power that does not exist in the U.S., where buyers as well as sellers compete. On the other hand, relative prices for highly unique drugs tended to be approximately proportional to per capita GDP or higher. Remarkably, biotech drugs were priced at or above U.S. levels in Canada and France. These results carry uneasy implications for the future of pharmaceutical research. The follow-on drugs that make therapeutic classes competitive also amplify the incentives to conduct new R&D within these classes even as R&D incentives for pioneer brands disappear with the approach of patent expiration. Our results suggest that price controls operate to blunt these incentives for follow-on drug research, leaving most of the burden to U.S. purchasers. Because these follow-on R&D results are often extremely valuable, the implications merit substantial concern. In contrast, biotech drug prices in foreign nations appear to be above profit-maximizing levels, which we suggest is caused by political forces in the U.S., while foreign revenues, as one would expect, are very low. This, too, undermines research incentives, especially for creating highly innovative drugs.

NOISE-IMMUNE CAVITY-ENHANCED OPTICAL HETERODYNE MOLECULAR SPECTROMETRY MODELLING UNDER SATURATED ABSORPTION

The Noise-Immune Cavity-Enhanced Optical Heterodyne Molecular Spectrometry (NICE-OHMS) is a modern technique renowned for its ultimate sensitivity, because it combines long equivalent absorption length provided by a high finesse cavity, and a detection theoretically limited by the sole photon-shot-noise. One fallout of the high finesse is the possibility to accumulating strong intracavity electromagnetic fields (EMF). Under this condition, molecular transitions can be easy saturated giving rise to the usual Lamb dips (or hole burning). However, the unusual shape of the basically trichromatic EMF (due to the RF lateral sidebands) induces nonlinear couplings, i.e., new crossover transitions. An analytical methodology will be presented to calculate spectra provided by NICE-OHMS experiments. It is based on the solutions of the equations of motion of an open two-blocked-level system performed in the frequency-domain (optically thin medium). Knowing the transition dipole moment, the NICE-OHMS signals (``absorption-like'' and ``dispersion-like'') can be simulated by integration over the Doppler shifts and by paying attention to the molecular Zeeman sublevels and to the EMF polarizationfootnote{J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 32, 838 (2015)}. The approach has been validated by discussion experimental data obtained on two transitions of ${rm C_{2}H_{2}}$ in the near-infrared under moderated saturationfootnote{Optics Express 16, 14689 (2008)}. One of the applications of the saturated absorption is to be able to simultaneously determine the transition intensity and the density number while only one these 2 quantities can only be assessed in nonlinear absorption

PHOTO-DISSOCIATION RESONANCES OF JET-COOLED NO2 AT THE DISSOCIATION THRESHOLD BY CW-CRDS, CHALLENGING RRKM THEORIES

Around 398~nm, the jet-cooled ${rm NO_{2}}$ spectrum exhibits a well identified dissociation threshold ($D_{0}$). Combining LIF detection and continuous-wave absorption-based CRDS technique a frequency range of $sim{rm 25,cm^{-1}}$ is analyzed at high resolution around $D_{0}$. In addition to the usual rovibronic transitions towards long-lived energy levels, $sim115$ wider resonances are observed. Over this energy range, the resonance widths spread from $sim{rm 0.006,cm^{-1}}$ ($sim450:{rm ps}$) to $sim{rm 0.7,cm^{-1}}$ (${rm sim{rm 4:ps}}$) with large fluctuations. At least two ranges of resonance width can be identified when increasing the excess energy. They are associated with the opening of the dissociation channels ${rm NO_{2}}rightarrow{rm NO}left(X,^{2}Pi_{1/2},,v=0,,J=1/2right)+{rm O}left(^{3}P_{2}right)$ and ${rm NO_{2}}rightarrow{rm NO}left(X,^{2}Pi_{1/2},,v=0,,J=3/2right)+{rm O}left(^{3}P_{2}right)$. Weighted mean unimolecular dissociation rate coefficients $k_{mathit{uni}}$ are calculated. The density of reactants (following the RRKM predictions) is deduced, and it will be discussed versus the density of transitions, the density of resonances and the density of vibronic levels. The data are analyzed in the light of time-resolved data previously reported. This analysis corroborates the existence of loose transition states along the reaction path close to the dissociation energy in agreement with the phase space theory predictionsfootnote{[Accpeted in J. Chem. Phys.]}

HIP JOINT LOAD AND MUSCLE STRESS IN SOCCER INSIDE PASSlNG

Studies investigating the mechanisms of adductor injuries in soccer have concentrated on full effort kicks. Purpose of this study was a kinetic analysis of the inside pass. Using infrared cameras and inverse dynamics, hip joint moments and adductor muscle stress was calculated during the swing phase of the pass. Moments in the transverse plane were nearly as high as in full effort kicks reported previously. Muscle stress in the m. gracilis reached up to 450 kPa. Considering the repetitive nature of inside passes in modern sot; cer, adductor muscles undergo high loads in matches and training. This might contribute to the explanation of the high incidences of adductor injuries. Practitioners should therefore consider the load-recovery-relation even in inside pass training. Specific strength training programs for the adductor and abductor muscle groups should be developed