PRAWO PORÓWNAWCZE I PRZEKŁAD PRAWNY W POSZUKIWANIU FUNKCJONALNYCH EKWIWALENTÓW – OBSZARY POWIĄZANE CZY ODDZIELNE?

There are no two identical languages, and there are no two identical legal systems; this is the challenge for both comparative lawyers and legal translators. Legal comparison is necessary to obtain the adequate legal translation, which in turn is applied to give comparative lawyers information about foreign legal systems. Although comparative lawyers and legal translators often face similar quandaries when engaged in the translation of legal terms, they operate within distinct theoretical frameworks and make use of different methodologies. In order to determine whether the functional method developed for comparative legal studies can be a useful tool for legal translators, this paper compares this method with the methodology applied by legal translators to find functional equivalents. Przekład prawniczy oraz rezultaty badań komparatystyczno-prawnych są źródłem wiedzy o systemach prawa. Nieodłącznym elementem badań prawno-porównawczych jest przekład tekstów prawnych. Tłumaczenie prawne i prawnicze wymaga porównania pojęć i instytucji należących do źródłowego i docelowego systemu prawnego. Nie ma dwóch identycznych języków, jaki i nie ma dwóch identycznych systemów prawnych. Dlatego zarówno tłumacz tekstów prawnych, jak i komparatysta porównujący systemy prawne poszukują ekwiwalentów funkcjonalnych. Komparatysta odwołuje się do funkcjonalizmu, z którego wywodzi się jedna z najstarszych metod badań komparatystycznych, wciąż uznawana za metodę dominującą. W oparciu o założenie, że wszystkie społeczeństwa zmagają się z podobnymi lub nawet takimi samymi problemami, funkcjonalizm poszukuje w różnych systemach prawnych funkcjonalnych ekwiwalentów, czyli takich instytucji i uregulowań prawnych, których celem jest rozwiązanie podobnego problemu. Czy tłumacz uzna za przydatne ekwiwalenty wskazane przez komparatystę? Czy może posłużyć się tą komparatystyczną metodą? Aby odpowiedzieć na te pytania, w artykule porównuję metody ustalania ekwiwalentów funkcjonalnych stosowane przez komparatystów prawnych i tłumaczy tekstów prawnych

(De)kulturyzacja i (de)hybrydyzacja języka prawnego w procesie tworzenia i transpozycji prawa Unii Europejskiej

W niniejszym tekście autorka omawia dwa procesy, jakim podlega język prawny podczas tworzenia prawa unijnego (tj. dekulturyzację i hybrydyzację) oraz zwraca uwagę na dwa przeciwne procesy, występujące zwłaszcza podczas transpozycji dyrektyw unijnych do systemu prawnego państw członkowskich (tj. kulturyzację i dehybrydyzację).Udostępnienie publikacji Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego finansowane w ramach projektu „Doskonałość naukowa kluczem do doskonałości kształcenia”. Projekt realizowany jest ze środków Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Wiedza Edukacja Rozwój; nr umowy: POWER.03.05.00-00-Z092/17-00

„Zjednoczona w różnorodności” – wyzwanie dla europejskiej tożsamości prawnej na przykładzie różnorodności językowej

The paper aims at investigating how the European Union, which bases European identity on the motto ‘united in diversity’ deals with the linguistic diversity of Europe. The paper focuses on how the EU developed its language system, especially: how languages, in which EU law is drafted, are chosen; how the concept of EU official and working languages is understood; what is the main challenge of EU legal drafting as far as languages are concerned.The paper aims at investigating how the European Union, which bases European identity on the motto ‘united in diversity’ deals with the linguistic diversity of Europe. The paper focuses on how the EU developed its language system, especially: how languages, in which EU law is drafted, are chosen; how the concept of EU official and working languages is understood; what is the main challenge of EU legal drafting as far as languages are concerned

THE CONCEPT OF CORPORATE REPUTATION IN MARKETING AND POLISH LAW — THE SEARCH FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY COMMUNICATION

The paper aims to compare how the concept of corporate reputation is understood in the fields of law and marketing. This comparative investigation determines whether interdisciplinary communication between these two domains, and consequently interdisciplinary research on corporate reputation, is possible. Due to the lack of a legal definition (i.e. definition in a legal act) of corporate reputation, the meaning of this concept is reconstructed on the basis of Polish legislation and case law. Then the legal concept of corporate reputation is compared with numerous definitions proposed by marketing scholars. As a result of this investigation, two approaches to corporate reputation are distinguished: reputation as a process and reputation as a result. Legal scholars focus on the latter, whereas marketing researchers consider both approaches. This difference results from diverse objectives of marketing and legal research on corporate reputation. The former aims at developing a good reputation (process) and evaluating it (reputation as a result), while the latter focuses on protecting corporate reputation (reputation as a result). Despite the differences in approaches towards the concept, interdisciplinary research is not only possible (especially, when both domains investigate reputation as a result), but also needed, as both lawyers and marketing experts operate in the same market and have the same client, i.e. an entrepreneur. The comparative analysis explained in this paper is the first step to bringing legal and marketing knowledge together

All Originals: Fiction and reality of multilingual legal drafting in the European Union and Canada

Defense date: 23/02/2009Examining Board: Profs. Bruno De Witte (EUI), Patrick Glenn (McGill University, Montreal), Manuela Guggeis (Legal Service of the Council of the European Union, Brussels), Jacques Ziller (Supervisor, former EUI and University of Pavia)The phenomenon of multilingual law stems from official multilingualism, which usually requires not only that the law should be enacted in all official languages, but also that texts of a single legal instrument expressed in different official languages be treated as equally authentic. Since all authentic language versions are equal, all of them should be taken into consideration and none of them should prevail for interpretation purposes. In order to guarantee this equality, the principle of equal authenticity presumes that all authentic language versions are originals and render the same meaning. However, in practice, multilingual law is often drafted by means of translation. Hence, there is a risk that those language versions prepared by means of translation will be deemed of questionable reliability, and therefore will not be considered when a multilingual legal instrument is interpreted. Contradictions between the presumptions behind the principle of equal authenticity and practice of multilingual legislative drafting draw attention to a paradox which can and has challenged the equality between authentic language versions. The thesis provides strong evidence - through a comparative study of multilingual legislative drafting in the European Union and Canada - that legal presumptions established by the principle of equal authenticity and the practice of legal multilingualism are more congruent than may appear at first glance. In particular, the study reveals that the equality between authentic language versions results not only from legal presumptions and provisions but can also be assured in practice throughout the drafting process. This is evident in the bilingual codrafting process currently applied in Canada at the federal level. But it is also discernible in EU multilingual legislative drafting methods, which combine elements of translation and codrafting. The detailed examination of legal drafting within EU institutions demonstrates that all languages participate in all drafting stages and influence each other. Therefore, although some elements of translation are involved in the drafting of EU multilingual law, by the end of the drafting process none of the language versions can be identified as a pure original, thus guaranteeing that the equality of all language versions is preserved

WIELOJĘZYCZNOŚĆ PRAWA JAKO PRAWO DO JEDNOJĘZYCZNOŚCI - FIKCJA CZY RZECZYWISTOŚĆ?

The rule of law, guaranteed in democratic countries, requires that those who are subject to the law should be able to know the law (the principle of legal certainty). Hence, a citizen should have an access to laws in a language that he or she knows. Therefore, in multilingual settings, the principle of legal multilingualism requires that legal acts be drafted in all official languages and provides that all language versions be equally authentic and contribute to the meaning of a legal act. Thus, citizens can read laws in a language they understand. On the other hand, since no two languages are identical, the discrepancies between language versions, due to the nature of language or a mistake, are inevitable. The paper identifies methods applied by judges of the Court of Justice of the European Union and national courts to deal with the discrepancies between language versions of EU legal acts. Through case law analysis, the paper demonstrates whether the principle of legal multilingualism actually guarantees legal certainty and what courts can do to make the right to remain unilingual in a multilingual setting real.Zgodnie z zasadą pewności prawa, wynikającą z zasady demokratycznego państwa prawa, obywatele powinni mieć możliwość zapoznania się z obowiązującymi aktami prawnymi. Zatem adresat norm prawnych powinien mieć dostęp do prawa w języku, który zna. Aby zagwarantować spełnienie tego wymogu w środowisku wielojęzycznym (takim jak państwo wielojęzyczne lub Unia Europejska), akty prawne uchwala się i publikuje we wszystkich językach urzędowych, przyjmując, że wszystkie wersje językowe są w równym stopniu autentyczne i tworzą znaczenie aktu prawnego. Dzięki temu obywatel może oprzeć swoją wiedzę o obowiązującym prawie tylko na aktach prawnych uchwalonych w jego języku ojczystym. Z drugiej strony, trudno jest uniknąć niezgodności między wersjami językowymi aktów prawnych, wynikających z natury języków (nie ma dwóch identycznych języków) lub błędów popełnionych podczas tworzenia prawa. Artykuł opisuje metody, stosowane przez sędziów Trybunału Sprawiedliwości Unii Europejskiej oraz sądów krajowych, w celu usunięcia niezgodności między wersjami językowymi aktów prawnych Unii Europejskiej. W artykule, na podstawie analizy orzecznictwa, wyjaśniono, czy unijna zasada wielojęzyczności prawnej de facto gwarantuje pewność prawa oraz jak sądy mogą zapewnić prawo do oparcia swojej wiedzy o wielojęzycznym prawie tylko o wersję w znanym adresatowi języku

Отношение потребителей культурных товаров в Интернете к автор-скому праву на примере поклонников манги

Rozwój technologii cyfrowych i Internetu zmienił sposoby uczestniczenia w kulturze. Konsumenci ograniczający się dotąd do nabywania i biernego korzystania z dóbr kultury, stają się kreatywnymi prosumentami. Prawo autorskie nie nadąża za tymi zmianami. Próby zaostrzenia regulacji z zakresu własności intelektualnej nie prowadzą do zapewnienia skutecznej ochrony twórcom i nie wspierają kreatywności. Artykuł analizuje postawy polskich konsumentów dóbr kultury (mangi) w Internecie względem prawa autorskiego. W artykule dokonano przeglądu istnieją-cych źródeł, jak również przeprowadzono własne badania. W celu zidentyfikowania postaw fanów mangi wobec prawa autorskiego zastosowano podejście interpretatywne. Przeprowadzono dwa wywia-dy w postaci minigrup, łącznie przebadano dziewięć osób w wieku 13–16 lat (grupę wybrano ze wzglę-du na profil czytelników mangi w Polsce). Badania przeprowadzone przez autorki potwierdzają donie-sienia odnalezione w literaturze, że młodzi widzą przede wszystkim pozytywne strony udostępniania i korzystania z dóbr kultury w Internecie, jest to dla nich zupełnie naturalne. Nie zastanawiają się nad konsekwencjami prawnymi takiego korzystania, ponieważ uważają, że nie są nimi objęci. Obecne prawo jest nie tylko nieskuteczne, ale działa wręcz korupcyjnie na młode pokolenie, które żyjąc w ciągłym duchu łamania prawa, uodparnia się na nie.The development of digital technology and the Internet changed the ways of participating in culture. Copyright law does not keep up with the creative revolution that develops in cyberspace and through its existence. Attempts to tighten regulation of intellectual property do not lead to ensure the effective protection of authors and do not support creativity. The paper analyses the attitudes of consumers of manga market in Poland towards copyright law. This paper reviews the existing sources, and presents results of research conducted by authors. To identify attitudes of manga fans towards copyright law, interpretive approach was applied. 2 interviews were conduct-ed in the form of minigrup, including 9 people aged 13–16 years (group chosen due to the profile of manga readers in Poland). This research confirms that the young appreciate the dissemination and use of cultural goods on the Internet. Young fans do not take into consideration legal cons-quences of their behavior, since they believe law will not be applied to them. The current law is not only ineffective, but it works even corruptive on the young generation which while living in constant violation of the spirit of the law, become resistant to them

THE CONCEPT OF CORPORATE REPUTATION IN MARKETING AND POLISH LAW — THE SEARCH FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY COMMUNICATION

The paper aims to compare how the concept of corporate reputation is understood in the fields of law and marketing. This comparative investigation determines whether interdisciplinary communication between these two domains, and consequently interdisciplinary research on corporate reputation, is possible. Due to the lack of a legal definition (i.e. definition in a legal act) of corporate reputation, the meaning of this concept is reconstructed on the basis of Polish legislation and case law. Then the legal concept of corporate reputation is compared with numerous definitions proposed by marketing scholars. As a result of this investigation, two approaches to corporate reputation are distinguished: reputation as a process and reputation as a result. Legal scholars focus on the latter, whereas marketing researchers consider both approaches. This difference results from diverse objectives of marketing and legal research on corporate reputation. The former aims at developing a good reputation (process) and evaluating it (reputation as a result), while the latter focuses on protecting corporate reputation (reputation as a result). Despite the differences in approaches towards the concept, interdisciplinary research is not only possible (especially, when both domains investigate reputation as a result), but also needed, as both lawyers and marketing experts operate in the same market and have the same client, i.e. an entrepreneur. The comparative analysis explained in this paper is the first step to bringing legal and marketing knowledge together

The Dawn of the Human-Machine Era: A forecast of new and emerging language technologies.

The 'human-machine era' is coming soon: a time when technology is integrated with our senses, not confined to mobile devices. The hardware will move from our hands into our eyes and ears. Intelligent eyewear and earwear will be able to translate another person's words, and make it look and sound like they were talking to you in your language. Technology will mediate what we see, hear and say, in real time. In addition, we will be having increasingly complex conversations with smart devices. This is not science fiction or marketing hype. These devices are currently in prototype, set for widespread consumer adoption in the coming years. All this will disrupt and transform our use and understanding of language use. Are we ready?A new EU 'COST Action' (https://cost.eu) research network 'Language in the Human-Machine Era' (LITHME), with members from 52 countries, explores how such technological advances are likely to change our everyday communication, and ultimately language itself. As a first major collaborative effort, LITHME has published an open access report 'The Dawn of the Human-Machine Era: A Forecast of New and Emerging Language Technologies': https://doi.org/10.17011/jyx/reports/20210518/1.Accessible to a wide audience, the report brings together insights from specialists in the fields of language technology and linguistic research.The forecast report was authored by 52 researchers, and edited by LITHME's Chair Dave Sayers (University of Jyväskylä, Finland), Vice-Chair Sviatlana Höhn (University of Luxembourg), and the Chair of LITHME's Computational Linguistics working group Rui Sousa Silva (University of Porto, Portugal). It describes the current state and probable futures of various language technologies – for written, spoken, haptic and signed modalities of language.The publication is intended to be both authoritative and accessible, aimed at language and technology professionals but also policymakers and the wider public. It describes how a range of new technologies will soon transform the way we use language, while discussing the software powering these advances behind the scenes, as well as consumer devices like Augmented Reality eyepieces and immersive Virtual Reality spaces. The report also shines a light on critical issues such as inequality of access to technologies, privacy and security, and new forms of deception and crime.It is a result of unique collaboration, as LITHME brings together people from different directions in language research who would not otherwise meet or collaborate. LITHME has eight thematic working groups; and members from each working group have contributed to the report