Promoting global watershed management towards rural communities: the May Zeg-zeg initiativeLength: pp.192-195

Watershed managementRural development

Motivational factors influencing farming practices in northern Ghana

Socio-economic factors that influence the adoption of management practices and technologies by farmers have received wide attention in the adoption literature, but the effects of socio-psychological farmer features such as perceptions and motivations have been analysed to a lesser extent. Using farm household survey data from three regions in northern Ghana, this study explores farmers’ motivations and perceived adoption impediments for three sustainable intensification practices (SIPs): improved maize varieties, cropping system strategies, and combined SIPs (i.e. improved maize and cropping system strategies), and the effect of motivational factors on decisions to adopt SIPs. First, explorative factor analysis (EFA) was used in identifying factors of motivations and impediments for adoption of SIPs. Then, a multinomial logit model was used to analyze the effect of socio-economic farm characteristics and motivational factors on farmers’ decisions to adopt SIPs. EFA identified three motivational factors: personal satisfaction, eco-diversity and eco-efficiency, which differed in importance between the three regions. Across these regions, higher scores for aspects of personal satisfaction were associated with lower interest in improved maize varieties compared to cropping system strategies, while the opposite was true for eco-efficiency which was related to a stronger preference for improved maize varieties. Uncertainty, absence of social support, and resource constraints were identified as impediment factors. The logit model demonstrated that extension services seemed to support the use of improved maize varieties more than the implementation of cropping system strategies. We conclude that motivational factors significantly influence farmer adoption decisions regarding sustainable intensification practices and should be considered systematically in combination with socio-economic farm features and external drivers to inform on-farm innovation processes and supporting policies.</p

A Strategic Approach to Developing the Role of Perennial Forages for Crop-Livestock Farmers

A substantial proportion of Australian animal production from grazing comes from regions and farms where cropping is the major enterprise. Developing new and improved grazing systems for mixed farms where crop production is the major driver of farm management decisions presents a unique research and development challenge. In this paper we describe a multi-disciplinary farming-systems research approach (‘EverCrop’) aimed at improving farm profitability, risk management and environmental impacts through the development and integration of new grazing options. It has been used to analyse and target new opportunities for farmers to benefit from perennial species across dry Mediterranean-type and temperate regions of southern Australia. It integrates field experimentation, on-farm trialling, farmer participatory research, soil-plant-climate biophysical modelling, whole-farm bioeconomic analysis and evaluations of adoptability. Multi-functional roles for summer-active grasses with winter cropping, integration of forage shrubs and establishment of new mixes of perennial grasses in crop rotations to improve farming-system performance are identified, along with an analysis of uptake by farmers

Diversity in perception and management of farming risks in southern Mali

A deeper understanding of how smallholder farmers perceive and manage risks is crucial to identify options that increase farmers' adaptive capacity. We investigated a broad range of risks that play a role in farmers' decision making processes. In the cotton zone of Mali opportunities and constraints vary with the resource endowment of farms. Furthermore, as households are large in this region, often comprising 20–50 family members, intra household diversity may influence perceptions and risk management. For this reason, we analysed diversity both among and within farms. Information was gathered through focus group discussions and a survey with 250 people from 58 households. Risk was assessed as the combination of the perceived frequency of occurrence of hazards and the impact on food availability and income. Farmers faced a diversity of risks, with hazards related to animal and personal health, and climate variability of highest concern. Resource endowment of farms was related to risk perception to a limited extent. Differences within the household were related to the generational factor and decision power, and not to gender. Household members with decision power worried most about risks. Almost a quarter of described hazards occurred with a high frequency and led to a high impact on food availability and income. Low resource-endowed farms were more often exposed to high risks than other farm types. Farmers applied a variety of actions to cope with hazards, yet in many cases farmers lacked a response. Medical actions were targeted to human and animal health hazards. Changes in field and animal management practices, adapted consumption rates and calls on social interactions, were combined for a diversity of hazards. By assessing the diversity of risks encountered by farmers and the diversity of risk management actions taken by farmers, this study goes beyond common risk research that focuses on a single hazard. Our results suggest that development interventions should not focus on either agronomic or economic options separately, but combine both to strengthen social well-being and agricultural production

Tillage, mulch and fertiliser impacts on soil nitrogen availability and maize production in semi-arid Zimbabwe

Conservation agriculture has been promoted widely in sub-Saharan African to cushion smallholder farmers against the adverse effects of soil fertility decline, stabilize crop yields and increase resilience to climate change and variability. Our study aimed to determine if aspects of CA, namely tillage and mulching with manure and fertiliser application, improved soil mineral N release, plant N uptake and maize yields in cropping systems on poor soils in semi-arid Matobo, Zimbabwe. The experiment, run for three seasons (2012/13–2014/15), was a split-split plot design with three replicates. Tillage (animal-drawn ploughing and ripping) was the main plot treatment and residue application was the sub plot treatment with two levels (100% residues removed or retained after harvest). Five fertility amendments (mineral fertiliser at 0, 20 and 40 kg N ha-1, 5 t ha-1 manure only and 5 t ha-1 manure + 20 kg N ha-1) were sub-sub plot treatments. Plough tillage stimulated N mineralisation by 4–19 kg N ha-1 and maize N uptake 13–23% more than the ripper tillage. When mulch was added to the plough tillage, mineralisation was slowed resulting in less crop N uptake (by 5–19%) compared with no mulch application. N uptake was highest in the manure treatments. N recovery and agronomic N efficiency by maize were highly variable over the three seasons, reflecting the uncertainty complicating farmers’ decision making. Nitrogen recovery in the manure treatments was generally poor in the first season resulting in low grain yields in the range 100–260 kg ha-1 regardless of tillage, though higher in subsequent seasons. In the second season manure application gave the largest grain yields under the ripper tillage, both with and without mulch averaging 1850 and 2228 kg ha-1 respectively. Under the plough tillage, the 40 kg N ha-1 treatment gave the highest grain yields of 1985 kg ha-1. In the third season yields were generally poor under all treatments due to low and poorly-distributed rainfall. The CA principles of minimum soil disturbance and maintenance of a permanent mulch cover resulted in reduced soil mineral N availability for crop uptake and poor maize yields. Nutrient inputs through mineral fertilisers and manure are key to ensuring production in such infertile, sandy soils which predominate in semi-arid regions of southern Africa

Is maize-cowpea intercropping a viable option for smallholder farms in the risky environments of semi-arid southern Africa?

Intercropping cereals with legumes can potentially enhance productivity and soil fertility. There is limited experimental evidence on the mechanisms underlying benefits or risks in intercropping systems and below-ground interactions in intercrops remain largely unstudied. Such understanding can inform strategies towards maximising returns to investments, particularly in poor fertility soils on smallholder farms in semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Additive intercropping experiments were established covering several seasons (2010/11–2014/15) and different conditions (on-station and on-farm) to determine effects on soil chemical variables, root dynamics and yield of intercrops. Maize was planted with the first effective rains and received either no fertiliser or 40 kg N ha−1. Cowpea was planted on the same date as maize or three weeks after planting maize in intercrops or sole stands and received no fertiliser. End-of-season available N was highest (P 1. Intercropping, however, resulted in compromised cowpea yields especially under the relay intercrop compared with the sole cowpea stands whilst maize yield was either not affected or improved. We attributed this to the lack of below-ground niche differentiation in root distribution between maize and cowpea. Maize–cowpea intercropping with low doses of N fertiliser resulted in over-yielding compared with monocropping. Intercropping proved to be a robust option across seasons and soil types, confirming that it is a promising option for resource-poor smallholders

Risk management options in maize cropping systems in semi-arid areas of Southern Africa

Although rainfed cropping in semi-arid areas is risky due to frequent droughts and dry spells, planting early with the first rains is often expected to result in yield benefits. We hypothesised that planting early leads to yield benefits if the planting coincides with a mineral N flush at the start of the season but leads to crop failure if there is a false start to the cropping season. The effects of different management options, including tillage (ploughing and ripping), mulch (two levels 0 and 2 t ha−1) and fertility amendments (five levels: 0; 20 and 40 kg N ha−1; 5 t manure ha−1 and 5 t ha−1 manure + 20 kg N ha−1) on grain yields were simulated using the calibrated and tested APSIM model over a 30-year period (1984–2015). Yields were simulated and compared across seven planting date scenarios (1 November, 15 November, 30 November, 15 December, 31 December, 15 January and planting when cumulative rainfall of 20 mm was received in three consecutive days). Planting with the first rains with manure + 20 kg N ha−1 resulted in the best average yield of 2271 kg ha−1 whilst the poorest average yields of 22 kg ha−1 were observed with planting on 15 January with no fertility amendment (0 kg N ha−1). Planting early (1 Nov to 15 Nov) and with the first rains resulted in exceeding the food self-sufficiency threshold of 1080 kg ha-1 in 40–83 % of the cases if fertility amendments are applied, as well as a low probability of complete crop failure, ranging from 0 to 40%. Grain yield penalties due to a false start followed the trend: ripper + mulch > plough + mulch > ripper (no mulch) averaging 256, 190 and 182 kg ha-1 respectively across all the fertility treatments. The model was able to simulate the occurrence of the mineral N flush with the first rains. Its coincidence with planting resulted in average yield benefits of 712, 452, 382 and 210 kg ha-1 for the following respective planting dates: 1 Nov, 15 Nov, 30 Nov, variable date when >20 mm rainfall was received. Early planting, in combination with reduced tillage, mulch and N containing fertility amendments is critical to reduce risk of crop failure in the smallholder cropping systems of semi-arid areas of southern Africa and achieve the best possible yields

Multidimensional assessment of smallholder farming systems’ sustainability

A holistic systems-oriented approach is strongly recommended to address the intractable challenges of complex smallholder farm and food systems in different ecologies, and cultures. In the present study, we have developed and piloted a multidimensional framework for assessing farming systems sustainability and resilience (FSSR) which is easily measurable and comparable. It considers five major sustainability domains: environmental, economic, productivity, social and human well-being. Further each domain is divided into different themes, sub-themes and indicators. The indicators have been finalized with rounds of stakeholders’ consultations involving farmers, researchers, development actors besides literature. We identified 115 measurable indicators: environmental (34), economic (29), productivity (12), social (25) and human well-being (15) in the final framework which are aggregated into an index with a maximum value of 100 representing the level of sustainability and resilience at different scales. In our case study the overall sustainability index scores ranged between 42 to 47 across farm types. The overall and domain level sustainability scores varied widely across individual households and farm types. The present framework could be very useful tool for researchers, development actors and institutions to identify entry points to design context-specific strategies to improve sustainability and resilience of farming systems in vulnerable regions