L'agriculture biologique : controverses et enjeux globaux de développement en Afrique

L'agriculture biologique offre plusieurs options pour documenter les transitions technologiques vers de nouveaux modèles de production, même si elle présente des aspects controversés : faiblesse des rendements, accessibilité aux normes, valeurs des écobilans ou accroissement du travail. En mobilisant différentes situations en Afrique subsaharienne, ce numéro thématique des Cahiers Agricultures contribue à illustrer ces controverses. Les articles constitutifs montrent comment l'agriculture biologique définie par les normes des pays industriels ne peut rendre compte de la diversité des réalités agricoles africaines. Il s'ensuit l'émergence de nouvelles certifications et demandes des sociétés locales. Cette émergence reste contrainte par l'insuffisance des bases de connaissances comparatives des réalités productives entre l'agriculture biologique et conventionnelle. Des innovations méthodologiques pour réduire les asymétries de connaissances sur la comparaison des performances sont alors proposées. Les résultats interrogent la nécessité de nouveaux indicateurs intégrant les questions de sécurité nutritionnelle et sanitaire. Ils montrent que l'agriculture biologique peut aussi être un levier de l'accroissement des rendements quand la rente forestière a été consommée par l'agriculture d'exportation. Tout en éclairant les controverses, ce numéro thématique pose l'hypothèse, que sous certaines conditions, l'agriculture biologique est une opportunité de rupture de paradigme technologique qui répond aux enjeux de développement en Afrique. Il invite à ne pas confondre cette rupture avec les mécanismes de transition incrémentaux portés par l'agroécologie

Simulation study for investment decisions on the EcoBoost camshaft machining line

Design/redesign of manufacturing systems is a complex, risky, and expensive task. Ford Motor Company’s Valencia Engine Plant faces this challenge as it plans to upgrade its machining and assembly lines to introduce the new EcoBoost engines. The research project described in this paper aimed to support the transition process particularly at the camshaft machining line by using simulation modelling techniques. A series of experiments was carried out using the simulation model developed, and recommendations were proposed based on the results of these experiments to support the decision as to where to invest on the line. The outcomes from the research project indicated that investment is required in terms of increasing the capacity of two bottleneck operations through retooling and improving the conveyor routing logic in one key area. Keywords: simulation modelling, closed-loop network, automotive production system

Defining Your Double Bottom Line: Philanthropy and the Investment Landscape

Grantmaking traditionally has been at the heart of philanthropy, whereas impact was the exclusive expectation of any desired result. While there is still a place for this kind of pure push for change, many investors today expect more, leveraging the power of the markets to invest in a way that is both impactful and able to maximize their financial rewards. This is particularly true of foundations with an eye toward supporting the perpetuity of their missions and organizations. This approach also offers a range of innovative mission-based benefits, including extending the utility of philanthropic capital and generating more capital to reinvest into impact initiatives, potentially in partnership or in tandem with grantmaking. However, the focus of impact has also shifted in radical new ways, especially over the last few years, in response to social developments and generational shifts in value. These shifts call for greater intentionality in defining the nuance and complexities involved in any use of the term “impact.” This article argues the key importance of defining and crystalizing specific thresholds, metrics, and language around foundations’ missions to ensure demonstrable qualitative and quantitative measures of progress toward success (financially and impact-based); discusses how the long-term pursuit of values-based goals and financial performance are mutually inclusive and self-reinforcing, and can be combined to great effect with more traditional forms of philanthropy (i.e., grantmaking); and demonstrates how impact investing provides the opportunity for the engagement of additional stakeholders and members of the community. This article also addresses several key questions: How has the use of philanthropic capital evolved from an investment perspective? What does an effective impact definition include? In which ways do impact and financial priorities buoy each other? How does one find credible sources of ESG/impact data and what determines high-quality data? And, finally, how can organizations best articulate their missions in their investment policy statements to better define their double bottom line

Ecobilan énergétique des filières fruits et légumes : innovations méthodologiques en cours

L'épuisement annoncé des ressources naturelles non renouvelables et les externalités environnementales liées à la consommation d'énergies fossiles pose la question énergétique au centre de l'évolution du paradigme technologique de l'agriculture et de l'agro-alimentaire. Quel est le caractère durable de l'agriculture en abordant l'équité intergénérationnelle, l'efficacité économique et l'impact environnemental ? Cette communication étudie l'impact du coût énergétique dans les choix technologiques à privilégier et les dynamiques de localisation des productions horticoles: comment choisir entre une production de proximité (chauffage et protection sous abris des cultures), et une délocalisation dans des zones pédoclimatiquement plus avantagées (prise en compte du transport induit). Pour y répondre, l'analyse aborde les limites des différentes approches conventionnelles mobilisables depuis les années 70. A partir de ces limites elle propose une méthode d'évaluation des écobilans énergétiques dans les filières fruits et légumes. Cette démarche est élaborée à partir de tests sur les productions de melon et de salade. Elle propose de distinguer les phases de production, de conditionnement et de transport ainsi que trois niveaux d'analyse énergétique (énergie directe, indirecte et énergie issue du capital). A partir d'une matrice de coefficients énergétiques, les flux sont convertis en unité commune, le MJ puis le Tep, unité qui permet aisément d'obtenir le coût financier de l'écobilan énergétique. L'évaluation économique a pour objectif d'évaluer symétriquement les coûts réels et les coûts cachés. Il est de ce fait proposé de prendre en considération le coût énergétique du traitement des déchets. Ce travail permet de simuler l'impact d'une hausse des prix de l'énergie sur les filières horticoles et de faire des comparaisons intra et inter-filière pour proposer une méthode de localisation des lieux d'innovations en anticipant les trajectoires techniques d'évolution des systèmes de production. (Résumé d'auteur

Pig castration : will the EU manage to ban pig castration by 2018?

In 2010, the 'European Declaration on alternatives to surgical castration of pigs' was agreed. The Declaration stipulates that from January 1, 2012, surgical castration of pigs shall only be performed with prolonged analgesia and/or anaesthesia and from 2018 surgical castration of pigs should be phased out altogether. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe together with the European Commission carried out an online survey via SurveyMonkey© to investigate the progress made in different European countries. This study provides descriptive information on the practice of piglet castration across 24 European countries. It gives also an overview on published literature regarding the practicability and effectiveness of the alternatives to surgical castration without anaesthesia/analgesia. Forty usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. Besides Ireland, Portugal, Spain and United Kingdom, who have of history in producing entire males, 18 countries surgically castrate 80% or more of their male pig population. Overall, in 5% of the male pigs surgically castrated across the 24 European countries surveyed, castration is performed with anaesthesia and analgesia and 41% with analgesia (alone). Meloxicam, ketoprofen and flunixin were the most frequently used drugs for analgesia. Procaine was the most frequent local anaesthetic. The sedative azaperone was frequently mentioned even though it does not have analgesic properties. Half of the countries surveyed believed that the method of anaesthesia/analgesia applied is not practicable and effective. However, countries that have experience in using both anaesthesia and post-operative analgesics, such as Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and The Netherlands, found this method practical and effective. The estimated average percentage of immunocastrated pigs in the countries surveyed was 2.7% (median = 0.2%), where Belgium presented the highest estimated percentage of immunocastrated pigs (18%). The deadlines of January 1, 2012, and of 2018 are far from being met. The opinions on the animal-welfare-conformity and the practicability of the alternatives to surgical castration without analgesia/anaesthesia and the alternatives to surgical castration are widely dispersed. Although countries using analgesia/anaesthesia routinely found this method practical and effective, only few countries seem to aim at meeting the deadline to phase out surgical castration completely

Animal welfare assessment on intensive and extensive pig farms

L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és avaluar i discutir l'aplicació pràctica, la validesa i la repetibilitat d'un sistema d'avaluació del benestar en granges comercials de porcs d'engreix. La capacitat d'aplicació, la sensibilitat, selectivitat, validesa contextual i repetibilitat al llarg del temps de les mesures basades en l'animal incloses al protocol Welfare Quality® es van avaluar mitjançant cinc estudis. A més a més, al llarg de la tesi es va considerar la utilització del protocol com a eina d'assessorament per resoldre problemes de benestar. En el primer estudi es presenta una anàlisi descriptiva de les mesures basades en l'animal incloses al protocol d'avaluació del benestar. En aquest treball es va avaluar tant l'aplicació pràctica del protocol en 30 granges intensives com la seva capacitat per discriminar-les entre sí. Tanmateix, el treball proposa una metodologia pràctica per identificar granges que presenten algun problema de benestar. Al segon i tercer estudi, es van avaluar un total de 11,647 porcs allotjats en 91 explotacions comercials provinents de tres sistemes intensius (convencional a França i Espanya, sobre palla a França, i Ibèric intensiu a Espanya) així com dos sistemes extensius (Ibèric en extensiu, Porc Negre Mallorquí) mitjançant el protocol Welfare Quality®. Tot dos estudis descriuen dades sobre la prevalença i distribució de diversos indicadors de benestar en una gran varietat d'explotacions amb la finalitat d'identificar una sèrie de factors causals. Els resultats corresponents als principis de bona alimentació i bon allotjament es presenten en el segon estudi mentre que els de salut es descriuen en el tercer. El quart estudi es centra en l'avaluació del benestar mitjançant mesures de comportament en porcs Ibèrics en condicions intensives i extensives. En aquest treball, el quart principi del Welfare Quality®, titulat "comportament adequat", es va avaluar en 21 granges (11 extensives i 10 intensives), les quals allotjaven una totalitat de 25,856 porcs Ibèrics. Finalment, el cinquè estudi avalua, en una mostra de 15 granges intensives convencionals, la repetibilitat després d'un temps perllongat de les mesures basades en l'animal incloses en el protocol Welfare Quality®. Els resultats es van discutir des d'un punt de vista discriminatiu i avaluatiu. Com a comentari general, el protocol Welfare Quality® per porcs d'engreix es pot aplicar fàcilment en una gran varietat d'explotacions comercials. Tot i així, la durada total del protocol pot ser percebuda com a massa llarga per part d'alguns dels agents implicats (com ara ramaders, industria o empreses certificadores). La sensibilitat dels indicadors de salut és aparentment massa baixa. La interpretació d'alguns resultats en termes de benestar animal, especialment els de comportament, s'ha de realitzar amb molta cura sobretot quan es comparen explotacions provinents de sistemes de cria molt diversos. Una interpretació equivocada d'un resultat pot erròniament afavorir o perjudicar un ramader o un sistema. Finalment, el protocol Welfare Quality® pot tenir enfocaments diversos que poden ser pràctics i complementaris com a eina d'assessorament, tot i que es va dissenyar com una eina per auditar.The objective of the present thesis is to evaluate and discuss the feasibility, validity and repeatability of a welfare assessment system for growing pigs on commercial farms. The feasibility, sensitivity, selectivity, contextual validity and repeatability over time of several animal-based measures of the Welfare Quality® (WQ®) protocol were evaluated in five studies. Furthermore, across the thesis, the use of the protocol as an advisory tool is considered. The first study presents a descriptive analysis of several animal-based measures of the welfare assessment protocol for pigs kept under intensive conventional conditions on 30 farms in Spain. It evaluates the feasibility of the protocol on intensive farms and its capacity to discriminate among intensive conventional farms. It also aims to propose a practical methodology to identify farms with a particular welfare problem. On the second and third studies, a total of 11,647 pigs housed on 91 commercial farms of three intensive systems (conventional in France and Spain, straw bedded in France, and Iberian intensive in Spain) as well as two extensive systems (Iberian extensive, Mallorcan Black pig) were assessed applying the overall WQ® protocol. Both studies yielded data about the prevalence and distribution of several welfare outcomes on a wide variety of commercial farms with the aim to identify possible causal factors. The results from the good feeding and housing principles are presented in the second study whereas those of health are given in the third study. The fourth study focused on the assessment of welfare through behavioural measures in Iberian pigs in intensive and extensive conditions. The fourth principle of the WQ® protocol, labelled "Appropriate behaviour", was assessed on 21 farms (11 extensive and 10 intensive) housing a total of 25,856 Iberian pigs. Changes in occurrence of behaviour and qualitative measures were evaluated and discussed when comparing Iberian pigs either in intensive or extensive rearing conditions. Finally, the fifth study evaluated the test-retest repeatability over a long period of time of the mean prevalence of several measures from the WQ® protocol on a sample of 15 intensive conventional farms of growing pigs. The results were discussed from a discriminative approach and from an evaluative approach. As a general comment, the WQ® protocol for growing pigs is feasible in a wide range of commercial conditions even though the overall duration may be perceived as too long by stakeholders. The sensitivity of health indicators appears to be low. Interpretation of several outcomes, especially behavioural ones, in terms of animal welfare, must be cautious, especially when comparing farm units from diverse rearing systems. An erroneous interpretation of an outcome can wrongly favour or prejudice a farmer. Several approaches of the WQ® protocol can be practical and complementary to be used for advisory purposes

'Phasing out pig tail docking in the EU - present state, challenges and possibilities'

European legislation dictates that pig tail docking is not allowed to be performed routinely (European Union. Council Directive 2008/120/EC of 18 December 2008 laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs. OJ L 47, 18.2.2009). Nevertheless, tail docking is still practiced routinely in many European countries, while four countries stopped routine tail docking completely. Tail docking is also practiced in many countries outside Europe. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe (FVE), the European Association of Porcine Health Management (EAPHM) together with the European Commission carried out an online survey to investigate the situation regarding the practice of pig tail docking and the provision of enrichment material across 24 European countries. It also focuses on the role of the veterinary profession and gives an overview on published literature regarding the challenges and possibilities related to the raising of pigs with intact tails. Fifty-seven (57) usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. On average 77% (median = 95%) of pigs are routinely tail-docked. In Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, less than 5% of the pigs are tail-docked. According to the respondents, 67% of pigs (median = 76%) across the 24 EU countries surveyed are given suitable enrichment materials. Training of veterinary practitioners, their role in advising the producer and undertaking a risk assessment of tail biting were more positively valued in countries that stopped routine tail docking than in countries that had not stopped routine tail docking. Initiatives such as training from national authorities to encourage abandoning tail docking and routine recording of tail biting at the slaughterhouse were identified as two successful items to promote the raising of pigs with entire tails. In many European countries the majority of the pigs are still routinely tail-docked, which is a violation of the European legislation. To stop routine tail docking it is necessary to raise the awareness and education about risk factors to prevent tail biting. The growing knowledge about the reasons for failing voluntary national initiatives as well as about successful measures taken by some countries to make pig production with intact tails feasible should be distributed throughout the EU pig producing community. The veterinary profession has a significant role to play in raising awareness, facilitate knowledge transfer and to identify risk factors and solutions on farm level for the benefit of pig health and welfare

'Phasing out pig tail docking in the EU - present state, challenges and possibilities'

European legislation dictates that pig tail docking is not allowed to be performed routinely (European Union. Council Directive 2008/120/EC of 18 December 2008 laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs. OJ L 47, 18.2.2009). Nevertheless, tail docking is still practiced routinely in many European countries, while four countries stopped routine tail docking completely. Tail docking is also practiced in many countries outside Europe. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe (FVE), the European Association of Porcine Health Management (EAPHM) together with the European Commission carried out an online survey to investigate the situation regarding the practice of pig tail docking and the provision of enrichment material across 24 European countries. It also focuses on the role of the veterinary profession and gives an overview on published literature regarding the challenges and possibilities related to the raising of pigs with intact tails. Fifty-seven (57) usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. On average 77% (median = 95%) of pigs are routinely tail-docked. In Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, less than 5% of the pigs are tail-docked. According to the respondents, 67% of pigs (median = 76%) across the 24 EU countries surveyed are given suitable enrichment materials. Training of veterinary practitioners, their role in advising the producer and undertaking a risk assessment of tail biting were more positively valued in countries that stopped routine tail docking than in countries that had not stopped routine tail docking. Initiatives such as training from national authorities to encourage abandoning tail docking and routine recording of tail biting at the slaughterhouse were identified as two successful items to promote the raising of pigs with entire tails. In many European countries the majority of the pigs are still routinely tail-docked, which is a violation of the European legislation. To stop routine tail docking it is necessary to raise the awareness and education about risk factors to prevent tail biting. The growing knowledge about the reasons for failing voluntary national initiatives as well as about successful measures taken by some countries to make pig production with intact tails feasible should be distributed throughout the EU pig producing community. The veterinary profession has a significant role to play in raising awareness, facilitate knowledge transfer and to identify risk factors and solutions on farm level for the benefit of pig health and welfare