General parenting and mothers’ snack giving behavior to their children aged 2–7

The increasing intake of energy-dense snacks among children is one of the contributing factors to childhood overweight. To understand children's snacking habits, snack choices of parents are essential to take into account. General parenting is one of the important factors that can influence the development of healthy eating patterns and weight status among children. Therefore, this study aims to explore how the key constructs of general parenting (nurturance, structure, behavioral control, overprotection and coercive control) relate to mothers’ snack choice for their children aged 2–7 years. The Dutch version of the validated Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire (CGPQ) was used to assess the key constructs of general parenting. An extensive, 13-day diary study with 136 Dutch mothers was used to measure the snacks mothers provided their children aged 2–4 years and 5–7 years. For both groups of mothers in our sample, differences were found on the scores of coercive control and overprotection. No differences between the mothers were present on the key constructs behavioral control, nurturance, and structure. Results give a first indication that more mothers who scored relatively higher on coercive control provided unhealthy products, like candy and cookies, and fewer mothers provided vegetables, compared to mothers who scored lower on coercive control. A higher score on coercive control combined with a higher score on overprotection was associated with fewer mothers providing unhealthy products like cookies and candies.</p

As a mother, I prefer to give a healthy snack, however... : Mothers’ considerations and value conflicts while providing snacks to their 2-7-year-old children

Nowadays, childhood obesity is a severe public health issue and has a high chance to track into adulthood. One of the behaviours contributing to childhood obesity is the consumption of energy-dense snacks which is highly prevalent among young children. Young children consume foods and snacks mainly in the home environment, which makes it an important setting. As mothers are mainly responsible for providing foods to their young children, the overall aim of this thesis was to identify and provide insights into mothers&rsquo; considerations and value conflicts while providing snacks to their 2 to 7 years old children. The first study in this thesis describes snack choices and the related considerations of mothers with young children in the home environment. A food and motivation diary study with 136 Dutch mothers of young children aged 2-7 years was conducted. Fruits, cookies and candy were the most frequently provided snacks; healthiness of the snack and child preference were the most mentioned considerations. Considerations were grouped in six overall categories: health-related, the influence of the child, habit-related, strategies, external influence, and other considerations. Higher educated mothers and mothers of first children showed more health-conscious behaviour. Lower educated mothers more often justified their (unhealthy) snack choice. How the key constructs of general parenting (nurturance, structure, behavioural control, overprotection, and coercive control) relate to mothers&rsquo; snack choice for their children aged 2-7 years was also investigated. The Dutch version of the validated Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire (CGPQ) was used to assess the key constructs of general parenting. The diary study with 136 Dutch mothers was used to measure the snacks mothers provided their children aged 2-4 years and 5-7 years. For both groups of mothers in our sample, differences were found on the scores of coercive control and overprotection. No differences between the mothers were present on the other key constructs. Results Indicate that more mothers who scored relatively higher on coercive control provided unhealthy products (like candy and cookies), whereas fewer mothers provided vegetables compared to mothers who scored lower on coercive control. A higher score on coercive control combined with a higher score on overprotection was associated with fewer mothers providing unhealthy products like cookies and candies. The next study provides insight into value conflicts, which mothers may experience while providing snacks to their young children. Possible value conflicts Dutch mothers experience, while providing snacks to their children, were investigated using the food and motivation diaries and semi-structured interviews. Results showed that the younger the children, the more value conflicts the mothers experienced. Mothers experienced most value conflicts when they provided snacks perceived as unhealthy. This study elicits six main value conflicts, namely, conflicts between healthy and unhealthy snacks; between healthy and convenient snacks; conflicts related to providing snacks just before dinner; related to influence of others; conflicts when the child asks but the mother says &ldquo;no&rdquo;; and conflicts related to many unhealthy snacks at parties or visits. The differences in mothers&rsquo; snack choice for their youngest child at 2-3 years compared to their oldest child when he/she was of the same age were investigated too. Moreover, the reasons for these differences were identified. This was done by semi-structured interviews. All mothers indicated differences between snacks provided to their youngest child (2-3 years) and their oldest child when it was of the same age. Most frequently mentioned differences were that the youngest children receive unhealthy snacks at a younger age, the structure regarding snack providing was more fixed, and the youngest children received less age-specific snacks. Most frequently mentioned reasons for these differences were role-modelling, the novelty of the first-born and availability of other types of snacks at home. To investigate the snack choice, considerations, and value conflicts of mothers from different countries and the relation to national culture was investigated too. Semi-structured interviews with mothers divided over 4 national cultures (Dutch, Polish, Indonesian, and Italian) were conducted. Four key themes could be distinguished to cluster the mentioned considerations; the health-related key theme, the child-related key theme, the time-related key theme and the product-related key theme. Data showed specific prevalence between considerations and nationalities. In all cultures, the value conflicts mentioned were mainly related to health. The results of this study indicated that mothers from the North of Italy showed different considerations and value conflicts in snack providing than mothers from the South of Italy. Therefore, this possible regional effect was explored by using semi-structured interviews with mothers from the North versus mothers from the South of Italy. North Italian mothers showed more health-related considerations while providing a snack compared to mothers living in the South. The child-related key theme revealed that a snack needs to be liked by the child, otherwise Italian mothers did not provide it. The product-related key theme showed the brand to be more important for South Italian mothers. Mothers from the North of Italy experienced more value conflicts, all related to health. This studied showed that even within the same country, geographical differences in mothers&rsquo; considerations and value conflicts for providing snacks exist. The last study of this thesis investigates mothers&rsquo; health perception of snacks provided. Mothers&rsquo; perceived healthiness of a certain snack could be diverse and differ from the actual nutritional healthiness of that specific snack. Diary studies and in-depth interviews with 22 Dutch mothers were conducted. During the interviews, four different types of cookies were presented and discussed. All mothers mentioned health as a consideration while providing snacks both in the interviews and in the diaries. For more than two-thirds of the mothers, health was the most important consideration. Three types of mothers were defined according to healthiness perception: &ldquo;product mothers&rdquo;, who related the healthiness of a snack to the intrinsic product properties, the &ldquo;balancing mothers&rdquo; who related the healthiness of the snack to the whole diet and the context, and the &ldquo;not that important mothers&rdquo;, for whom the healthiness of a snack was not that relevant because the healthy foods were already eaten during the main meals

Youngest versus oldest child: why does mothers’ snack choice differ?

Young children frequently consume energy dense snacks, which is one of the factors contributing to childhood overweight. The consumption of more healthy snacks could help in meeting the dietary intake requirements of children. Previous research suggested that mothers of first children showed more health-conscious food behavior compared to mothers of not-first children. However, what is missing from earlier research is an in-depth exploration of differences in considerations to choose a snack and the reasons connected. Therefore, this study aims to characterize differences in mothers' snack choice for their youngest child at 2–3 years and their oldest child when he/she was of the same age. Moreover, this study aims to identify reasons for these differences. A grounded theory approach was used for data collection and analysis. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 17 Dutch mothers with two or three children. All mothers indicated differences between snacks provided to their youngest child (2–3 years) and their oldest child when it was of the same age. Most frequently mentioned differences were youngest children receive unhealthy snacks at a younger age, the structure regarding snack providing is more fixed, and that youngest children receive less age-specific snacks. Most frequently mentioned reasons for these differences were role-modelling, novelty of the first-born, availability of other types of snacks at home, and school hours of the oldest child. The study provided insights into the possible role of siblings in shaping snack consumption. Results might be relevant for the development of intervention strategies to increase mothers' awareness and to help to meet children's dietary requirements.</p

What influences mothers’ snack choices for their children aged 2–7?

The increasing intake of energy dense snacks by children is one of the factors contributing to childhood overweight. Mothers are mainly responsible for the foods their young children consume. Therefore, this study aims to describe snack choices and the related considerations of mothers with young children in the home environment. The possibility that snack choices and considerations are related to maternal education, childbirth order, and age groups of the children was also investigated. A food and motivation diary study with 136 Dutch mothers of young children aged 2–7 years was conducted for 13 days. Mothers reported every snack they gave to their child. Fruits, cookies and candy were the most frequently provided snacks; healthiness of the snack and child preference were the most used considerations. Considerations were grouped in six overall categories: health-related, influence of the child, habit-related, strategies, external influence and other considerations. Higher educated mothers and mothers of first children showed more health-conscious behavior. Lower educated mothers more often justified their (unhealthy) snack choice. Next to insight into the number and type of snacks provided, the empirical findings in this study provide new understanding of the considerations of mothers while providing a snack to their young children.</p

Value conflicts in mothers' snack choice for their 2- to 7-year-old children

Value conflicts appear when people experience struggles, doubts, and feelings of guilt when making food choices. This study aims to provide insight into value conflicts, which mothers may experience while providing snacks to their young children. Mothers are mainly responsible for providing the snacks their young children eat, making it a big responsibility for them as children's dietary behaviour tracks into adulthood. Possible value conflicts Dutch mothers (n = 136) experience while providing snacks to their 2- to 7-year-old children were investigated using food and motivation diaries and semi-structured interviews. Differences between mothers' educational level, first versus not-first child, and the differences in age of the children were taken into account. Results showed that the younger the children, the more value conflicts the mothers experienced. Mothers experienced most value conflicts when they provided snacks perceived as unhealthy. Six main value conflicts are elicited by this study, namely, conflicts between healthy and unhealthy snacks; conflicts between healthy and convenient snacks; conflicts related to providing snacks just before dinner; conflicts related to influence of others; conflicts when the child asks but the mother says “no”; and conflicts related to many unhealthy snacks at parties or visits. The insights gained in this study can be used for interventions to promote a healthier lifestyle, support the design of new snack products, and can give guidance for marketing challenges in global snack markets.</p

The perception of 8- to 10-year-old Dutch children towards plant-based meat analogues

Consumption of meat-based food products can be related to diverse health problems, while the production of meat-based food products negatively impacts the environment. A way to reduce meat production and consumption is to replace meat-based food products by meat substitutes. This would be especially effective when done by consumers who are currently eating meat. Families could play an important role in the transition from regular meat consumption towards consumption of meat substitutes. Food preferences and opinions of the children are of great influence on parents' food choice for the main meals. However, little is yet known about the perception of children regarding meat substitutes. Therefore, this study examined the perception of 8- to 10-year-old non-vegetarian Dutch children towards plant-based meat analogues. In this study, meat analogues are defined as specific meat substitutes, resembling regular meat. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 34 children. It was found that children are in general open to trying meat analogues, while playing a pivotal role in the household by requesting meat analogues for dinner. Results suggest that meat analogues’ product attributes should resemble regular meat to address the preference of children. Although the packaging should resemble the packaging of regular meat, it should also be distinguishable from regular meat by clear communication about the vegetarian content. In addition, communication about animal welfare, healthiness and environmental impact related to the meat analogues can activate positive perception around meat analogues. Stressing these aspects in product development and communication could positively influence the consumption of meat analogues among non-vegetarian children