Quantification and description of braking during mountain biking using a novel brake power meter : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sport & Exercise at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Olympic format cross country mountain biking is both physically and technically demanding. The demands of this cycling genre are in contrast to road cycling because of the demanding off-road terrain. With its many obstacles and different surfaces, riders must make their way up and over steep hills a number of times throughout a lap. It’s very easy to be able to measure the performance of the riders on ascending sections of the track thanks to on-the-bike personal power meter that measure the propulsive work rates in the pedals. However, there is currently no commercially available method to assess the way the rider handles the bike on descending sections. This thesis first highlighted the differences in physiological demand of descending on off-road versus on-road (Chapter 4). An interesting finding in Chapter 4 also showed that riders might be able to save energy by adopting a coasting strategy down hills. This caused the researchers to question the bicycle handling attributes that might allow this, which led to the development and validation of a device designed to measure how the rider uses the brakes while riding/racing (Chapter 5). From there, we completed an investigation akin to the early mountain biking descriptive studies (Chapter 6), but instead of focusing on data related to respiratory and metabolic load, the brake power meter was employed. The finding that braking patterns were related to mountain biking performance was not surprising, but being the first team to quantify this was very exciting. Since most of the braking was occurring on the descents in that study, we examined the differences in braking between training groups on an isolated turn (Chapter 7). The finding that inexperienced riders use their brakes differently—and that this results in reduced performance—left no doubt to the importance of braking. From there, we revisited the method used to calculate rear brake power, since current methods led to inaccurate measurement during skidding (Chapter 8). This thesis culminated with the exploration of an algorithm that could quickly and easily describe mountain bike descending performance with one single metric (Chapter 9); the hope is that the normalized brake work algorithm should increase the utility of the brake power meter for training purposes and post-competition performance analysis. Overall, this thesis highlights the need, importance and utility of a bicycle brake power meter to assess mountain bike performance

Low rates of free-riding in residential energy efficiency retrofit grants. ESRI Research Bulletin, 2018/04

The Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) administers the Better Energy Homes (BEH) grant scheme to encourage households to invest in residential energy efficiency retrofits. All grant schemes are subject to free-riders, where a proportion of those being grant-aided would have undertaken the activity (i.e. energy efficiency retrofits) in the absence of any grant aid, which is often referred to as deadweight loss. This research finds that just 7% of participants in the BEH scheme would have undertaken a retrofit even in the absence of grant aid, and a further 8% would have occurred with a lower level of grant aid than was available. These free-rider rates are very low compared to similar schemes internationally, which have free-riding rates ranging from 40% to as much as 96%. Free-rider rates vary by retrofit type, lowest for households investing in solar panels and highest for those investing in central heating controls. Of households that received grant aid for heating controls only, 33% were estimated as free riders (i.e. would have invested in absence of the grant) and a further 27% would have undertaken a retrofit with a lower level of grant aid. The analysis also estimates how much households are willing to pay for certain types of energy efficiency retrofit improvements. For retrofits that specifically improve the efficiency of energy used for space and water heating (e.g. boiler upgrades, heating controls) estimated willingness-to-pay equals €0.127/kWh/yr. Households that have previously undertaken an energy efficiency upgrade are willing to pay twice this amount. Additionally, households in the least energy efficient properties (i.e. properties with the greatest potential energy efficiency gains) are willing to pay less for retrofits than households in more energy efficient properties

Return on energy efficiency investments in rental properties. ESRI Research Bulletin 2018/6

Generally, residential tenants do not invest in energy efficiency, as the upkeep of rental properties is usually the landlord’s responsibility. This research, which is based on a survey of tenants, finds that up to half of rental tenants are willing to pay more for properties with higher levels of energy efficiency. Of rental tenants willing to pay for better energy efficiency, on average they are willing to pay €38 per month extra in rent for a 1-grade improvement in the 15-grade Building Energy Rating (BER) scale for their existing rental properties. How much extra rent tenants are willing to pay varies across a number of circumstances but the factor that had the largest impact is information; information related to BER ratings and the potential savings in energy costs associated with better BER grades. Information on the BER rating scheme and the associated potential energy cost savings have two impacts on tenants’ willingness to pay for energy efficiency improvements. First, with additional information explaining BERs, including what a BER rating measures and how much a grade improvement along the BER scale can affect energy costs more tenants were willing to pay additional rent for energy efficiency improvements, rising from 38% of our survey sample to 55%. Second, the extra rent that tenants were willing to pay for a 1-grade BER improvement declined from €47/month to €38/month. This decline in willingness to pay occurs even among respondents that were willing to pay an additional rent of €47/month prior to learning more about BERs and associated potential energy cost savings. So, a higher proportion of tenants were willing to pay some extra rent for energy efficiency improvements but the amount that they are willing to pay declines, on average. This reduction in willingness to pay implies that in the absence of a good understanding of the potential energy cost savings associated with BER improvements tenants overvalue energy efficiency labels. A substantial minority of tenants are unwilling to pay additional rent for energy efficiency improvements, between 45% and 62% in our sample. The predominant reason tenants indicated why they were unwilling to pay was that they could not afford higher rents. This reflects the current property market in Ireland with high rental rates. When the extra rent that tenants are willing to pay is compared to the cost of associated energy efficiency improvements, the investment payback periods for most retrofit types (e.g. attic and cavity wall insulation, heating system upgrades) are relatively short. For the most energy inefficient properties (BER grades D-G) the investment payback periods are between 1 – 3 years when the Sustainable Energy Authority’s (SEAI) energy efficiency retrofit grant is included, whereas the payback period of more energy efficient properties (BER grades A-C) averages between 2 – 4 years. Payback periods for retrofits comprising external wall insulation or solar panels are substantially longer

Educating the Psychological Soul

This paper draws from an exploration of the works of four prominent American educational psychologists –Granville Stanley Hall, William James, John Dewey and Edward Thorndike– to focus on principles governing principles governing the child development. The works of these authors are considered as functions that “psychologize” the child as a human “becoming” that is to be educated towards ethical and intelligent ends. Two historical vantage points are taken in the article: (1) To explore psychology as fabricating the moral child and (2) The mapping and orienting the self through reason through a psychology that opens the interior of the child to calculation and supervision. The approach explores educational psychology as an assemblage of discursive, intellectual and material practices that invite the student-child to see/be seen and to shape/be shaped in particular ways. Educating the autonomous self required modernized methods

When Responsive Legislation Ignores the Forest for the Trees

Large-scale financial disasters have resulted in equally large-scale overhauls of the system responsible for financial industry regulation. Choice over responding parties to these disasters is minimal, and the public inevitably looks to the government for assistance and explanation. The increasingly globalized economy causes any nationwide financial regulation in the U.S. to be felt throughout international markets. U.S. environmental regulation, while not felt immediately abroad, can have drastic impacts on business planning, environmental risk-management, and human rights in the developing world

Investigating Stormwater Drainage Basin Sediments as a Means of Bacterial Accumulation and Transport Within a South Carolina Estaurine Watershed

While the presence of fecal indicator bacteria such as Escherichia coli in urban stormwater has been widely documented, their occurrence and persistence in sediments are not as well understood. Traditional research into bacterial contamination of surface waters has focused on overland transport of waste material and assumes fecal bacteria such as E. coli have short lifetimes in the environment. Recent investigations suggest that E. coli can accumulate in drainage basin sediments and act as a fecal bacterial reservoir within a watershed. This thesis investigated the prevalence of E. coli populations in the sediments and overlying waters of Withers Swash (a tidal creek) under dry and wet weather conditions. Results indicated E. coli persisted in the sediment environment and were resuspened into overlying waters during times of increased flow. Rain event profile results suggested the occurrence of steady state E. coli populations in drainage basin sediments. Additionally, laboratory experiments investigated E. coli colonization of overlying waters and sediments using microcosm environments with drainage basin sediments and stormwater. These lab-based experiments also examined the importance of host sources (human and avian) to bacterial survival, expanding on the growing body of research emphasizing the importance of drainage basin sediments as they enhance the persistence and transport of the fecal indicator bacteria E. coli within a watershed. Each experiment used sediments of varying grain size and organic content to examine the influence of physical characteristics on bacterial prevalence. Results suggested host source of bacteria may be more important to initial bacterial colonization while physical characteristics of drainage basin sediments better explained extended E. coli persistence. Findings also suggested an indirect control of water column bacterial concentration by sediment type and erodibility

Daydreams of a Daydreamer

"What is most truly human about man, what is perhaps his greatest gift derived from evolution and perhaps his greatest resource in his mastery of the environment and of himself, is his capacity for fantasy." -Jerome Singer The mind is inherently restless. Fifteen to 50 percent of our days consist of daydreaming. Research has found that daydreaming is our minds default mode. It brings us not only unforeseen hours of virtual pleasure and joy, guilt and anxiety, but it also helps generate our sense of self and may even be the key to consciousness. "Daydreams of a Daydreamer" is an investigation of my hopes aspirations and desires. Having been brought up in an extremely religious environment and recently "coming out of the closet" there is a continuing urge in my life to resolve these opposing cultures. Though I no longer practice my former religion, I am learning to make peace with how it affects who I am. I chose cement and crochet to represent perceived characteristics of these two cultures, respectively our physical needs, wants and carnal desires, and our need for spiritual well being. The materials mended into each sculpture are a way of mediating between the two. This mending in my art is a way of healing. Much of this healing and resolve comes from the process of making my work. Within the process of life molding and casting I am able to drawing out representations of our physical needs, wants and carnal desires. Partial figures are caste in order to pinpoint areas of tension and relaxation. All the casts are from the male figure as a form of self-investigation. The repetitive action of crocheting is a rhythmic motion that provides me with ample time to daydream. Crocheting becomes a form of busy work, work that tends to let our minds drift and sift through other thoughts. The crochet also serves as a spiritual signifier. The way it can flow, cover and embed itself with the figure but at the same time be distinctive from the body resonates my thoughts on how spirituality seems to support us, give us hope and weave in and out of our lives

Chlorinated Tyrosine Species as Markers of Inflammation: A Kinetic Study

Chronic inflammation is associated with numerous human diseases. During inflammation, leukocytes release the enzyme myeloperoxidase (MPO) which generates reactive oxygen species such as hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Additionally, MPO generates reactive nitrogen species. These reactive species can damage host fats, proteins, and DNA, contributing to disease pathology. Because of the reactivity and short half-lives of reactive species, measurement of surrogate markers is necessary to determine their extent and source. Chlorination of the tyrosine phenol ring by HOCl to produce 3-chlorotyrosine (3ClTyr) or nitration of the phenol ring by reactive nitrogen species to produce 3-nitrotyrosine (NO2Tyr) are two such markers. Both are stable byproducts of MPO activity and are readily measurable. Some studies, however, have called into question their use as biomarkers of inflammation. Concentrations of 3ClTyr or NO2Tyr reportedly decrease upon exposure to HOCl, suggesting that any measurement of these in vivo would be underestimated. These studies, however, failed to quantify the rate of degradation and did not identify the products. Furthermore, there is some evidence to suggest that, in vivo, chlorination of tyrosine by HOCl occurs through chloramine intermediates rather than directly. This is evidenced by the preferential chlorination of tyrosine residues that are nearby lysine or histidine, whose side-chain amines react with HOCl to become chloramines. This contradicts the relatively slow reactions kinetics of tyrosine chlorination by histidine or lysine chloramine and warrants further investigation. In these studies, we identify the product of 3ClTyr and NO2Tyr reacting with HOCl as 3,5-dichlorotyrosine (Cl2Tyr) and 3-chloro-5-nitrotyrosine (ClNO2Tyr), respectively. The second-order rate constants of the chlorination of tyrosine, 3ClTyr, and NO2Tyr by HOCl, histidine chloramine, and lysine chloramine are reported. The relevance of Cl2Tyr and ClNO2Tyr in vivo are discussed. Additionally, we investigate the kinetics of tyrosine chlorination in the context of a lysine- or histidine-containing peptide. The rate of chlorination of tyrosine within a peptide is dependent on the primary and secondary structure and is a first-order, intramolecular reaction. These studies further support the role of chloramines in the chlorination of protein-bound tyrosine and, to our knowledge, are the first to provide rate constants

An interpretation of building structures and their implications for social stratification at the site of Ban Non Wat, Thailand : a GIS analysis of prehistoric post-holes

In order to understand prehistoric behaviors through the field of archaeology, it may first be necessary to determine the social structure, as well as the political and economic growth of that society over time. Culture change may be displayed in a number of ways, including changes in pottery type, the presence or absence of materials such as copper and iron, or mortuary context and practices. According to Flannery (2002), social and economic evolution may be displayed in the archaeological record by changes in the shape and size of domestic structures. Excavations at the site of Ban Non Wat have revealed occupations covering a span of over 4000 years, ranging from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. During these excavations, thousands of post-holes were evident in the stratigraphic context of the site. Using a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) application, a general overlay of post-hole patterns per occupation level can be examined. By then deducing which of these post-holes had been dug during later occupations, patterns and changes in structure types over time can be investigated. This paper examines the apparent structural transformations at the site of Ban Non Wat, and compares them to other indications of social, physical, and economic change that have previously been revealed