Cooperative binding of ApiAP2 transcription factors is crucial for the expression of virulence genes in Toxoplasma gondii

International audienceToxoplasma gondii virulence depends on the expression of factors packed into specific organelles such as rhoptry and microneme. Although virulence factor expression is tightly regulated, the molecular mechanisms controlling their regulation remain poorly understood. ApiAP2 are a family of conserved transcription factors (TFs) that play an important role in regulating gene expression in apicomplexan parasites. TgAP2XI-5 is able to bind to transcription-ally active promoters of genes expressed during the S/M phase of the cell cycle, such as virulence genes (rhoptries and micronemes genes). We identified proteins interacting with TgAP2XI-5 including a cell cycle-regulated ApiAP2 TF, TgAP2X-5. Using an inducible knock-down strategy and RNA-seq, we demonstrated that the level of expression of number of virulence factors transcripts is affected by the disruption of TgAP2X-5 expression. While TgAP2X-5 disruption has mild effect on parasite invasion, it leads to the strain avirulence in mice. To better understand the molecular mechanisms at stake, we investigated the binding of TgAP2XI-5 at promoters in the TgAP2X-5 mutant strain in a genome-wide assay. We show that disruption of TgAP2X-5 expression leads to defects in TgAP2XI-5 binding to multiple rhoptry gene promoters. Taken together, these data suggest a cooperative contribution of two ApiAP2 TF in the regulation of virulence genes in T. gondii

Characterization of a nuclear pore protein sheds light on the roles and composition of the Toxoplasma gondii nuclear pore complex

International audienceThe nuclear pore is a key structure in eukaryotes regulating nuclear-cytoplasmic transport as well as a wide range of cellular processes. Here, we report the characterization of the first Toxoplasma gondii nuclear pore protein, named TgNup302, which appears to be the orthologue of the mammalian Nup98-96 protein. We produced a conditional knock-down mutant that expresses TgNup302 under the control of an inducible tetracycline-regulated promoter. Under ATc treatment, a substantial decrease of TgNup302 protein in inducible knock-down (iKD) parasites was observed, causing a delay in parasite proliferation. Moreover, the nuclear protein TgENO2 was trapped in the cytoplasm of ATc-treated mutants, suggesting that TgNup302 is involved in nuclear transport. Fluorescence in situ hybridization revealed that TgNup302 is essential for 18S RNA export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, while global mRNA export remains unchanged. Using an affinity tag purification combined with mass spectrometry, we identified additional components of the nuclear pore complex, including proteins potentially interacting with chromatin. Furthermore, reverse immunoprecipitation confirmed their interaction with TgNup302, and structured illuminated microscopy confirmed the NPC localization of some of the TgNup302-interacting proteins. Intriguingly, facilitates chromatin transcription complex (FACT) components were identified, suggesting the existence of an NPC-chromatin interaction in T. gondii. Identification of TgNup302-interacting proteins also provides the first glimpse at the NPC structure in Apicomplexa, suggesting a structural conservation of the NPC components between distant eukaryotes

Two ancient membrane pores mediate mitochondrial-nucleus membrane contact sites

Coordination between nucleus and mitochondria is essential for cell survival, and thus numerous communication routes have been established between these two organelles over eukaryotic cell evolution. One route for organelle communication is via membrane contact sites, functional appositions formed by molecular tethers. We describe a novel nuclear-mitochondrial membrane contact site in the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. We have identified specific contacts occurring at the nuclear pore and demonstrated an interaction between components of the nuclear pore and the mitochondrial protein translocon, highlighting them as molecular tethers. Genetic disruption of the nuclear pore or the TOM translocon components, TgNup503 or TgTom40, respectively, result in contact site reduction, supporting their potential involvement in this tether. TgNup503 depletion further leads to specific mitochondrial morphology and functional defects, supporting a role for nuclear-mitochondrial contacts in mediating their communication. The discovery of a contact formed through interaction between two ancient mitochondrial and nuclear complexes sets the ground for better understanding of mitochondrial-nuclear crosstalk in eukaryotes

The Role of Dectin-2 for Host Defense Against Disseminated Candidiasis

Acknowledgments This work was supported by European Union ALLFUN (FP7/2007 2013, HEALTH-2010-260338) (Fungi in the setting of inflammation, allergy and autoimmune diseases: Translating basic science into clinical practices ‘‘ALLFUN’’) to D.C.I., F.C., C.F., M.G.N., and N.A.R.G. M.G.N and J.Q. were supported by a Vici grant of The Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (to M.G.N.). M.G.N. was supported by an ERC Consolidator Grant (nr. 310372). N.A.R.G. was also supported by the Wellcome Trust (086827, 075470, 097377, & 101873).Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Impact of cell wall β-1,2 mannosides expression on Candida albicans virulence

Les β-1,2 oligomannosides (β-Mans), dont la présence est relativement rare dans le monde vivant, font partie des facteurs de C. albicans contribuant à sa virulence. Ils sont retrouvés dans la paroi de la levure associés aux N-glycannes d’un haut polymère de mannoses lié à un peptide, le phosphopeptidomannane (PPM) et des mannoprotéines (MPs) ainsi qu’à la copule glycannique d’un glycolipide de la famille des mannose-inositol-phosphocéramides, le phospholipomannane (PLM). Les mécanismes de reconnaissance des β-Mans par l’hôte dépendent du degré de polymérisation des oligomannosides et des molécules qui les portent. Une famille de 9 enzymes, les β-1,2 mannosyltransférases (Bmts), permettent la biosynthèse des β-Mans de C. albicans. Ces enzymes ont des fonctions distinctes car leur activité a une spécificité assez stricte qui dépend du glycoconjugué et de l’étape de β-mannosylation. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse s’est appuyé sur la spécificité des Bmts, principalement celles initiant la biosynthèse des β-Mans (Bmt1: N-mannanes acido stables – Bmt2: N-mannanes acido labiles – Bmt5: PLM) pour définir i) le rôle respectif des β-Mans dans la virulence de C. albicans et ii) la contribution des différents glycoconjugués dans l’expression de surface des β-Mans. Une grande partie de l’étude a reposé sur la génération de doubles mutants (bmt1bmt2δ) et (bmt2bmt5δ) exprimant des β-Mans uniquement sur une fraction ou un type de glycoconjugué et d'un triple mutant (bmt1bmt2bmt5δ) n’exprimant plus de β-Mans. Nous avons tout d’abord réévalué la β-mannosylation des MPs qui était jusqu’à présent déduite de celle du PPM. En analysant les O-mannosides des mutants bmtsδ, nous avons pu mettre en évidence l’implication de Bmt1 et Bmt3, qui ajoutent respectivement le 1er et le 2ème β-mannose, dans la O-mannosylation des MPs. L’analyse de la β-mannosylation des MPs et d’une protéine recombinante chez le mutant bmt1δ a mis en évidence le rôle essentiel de Bmt1 dans ce processus. L’analyse en immunofluorescence des différents mutants a montré que seul le PPM et les MPs sont responsables de l’expression de surface des β-Mans. Cette expression a un impact inattendu sur la virulence dans des modèles murins de candidoses disséminées. Les souches exprimant des β-Mans en surface sont en effet moins virulentes que les mutants présentant des défauts de β-Mannosylation. Les mutants, principalement bmt1bmt2bmt5δ sont néanmoins moins virulents chez des souris n’exprimant plus la galectine 3, lectine reconnaissant les β-Mans. Ces résultats montrent le double rôle des β-Mans selon leur localisation et le conjugué qui les porte: d’une part ils permettent à l’hôte d’éliminer la levure via la galectine 3 et d’autre part ils peuvent contribuer à sa virulence via certainement le PLM. La β-mannosylation du PLM est indispensable pour l’activité inflammatoire du PLM sur les macrophages et sa modulation peut entraîner la résistance de la levure à certains antifongiques. La régulation de la β-mannosylation de ses glycoconjugués est un moyen pour C. albicans de s’adapter à différentes conditions. La β-mannosylation du PPM et des MPs est réduite à 37°C et lorsque le pH diminue, pouvant ainsi permettre à la levure d’être moins reconnue in vivo et d’échapper aux mécanismes de défense de l’hôte. Nous avons pu également mettre en évidence un mécanisme permettant à C. albicans de changer de sérotype en inactivant Bmt1. Ce mécanisme qui n’est pas encore parfaitement décrit, permet à la levure de mieux coloniser le tube digestif de souris. Nos résultats mettent ainsi en évidence d’une part l’expression complexe des β-Mans dans la paroi de C. albicans et leur rôle dans la virulence en fonction de leur localisation et d’autre part l’adaptation de la levure à différents environnements.Β-1,2 oligomannosides (β-Mans) are rare in the living world and are considered as factors contributing to C. albicans virulence. They are present in the cell wall associated to N-glycans of a high mannose polymer linked to a peptide, the phosphopeptidomannan (PPM) and to mannoproteins (MPs) and they are part of the glycan moiety of a glycolipid from the mannose-inositol-phosphoceramid family, the phospholipomannan (PLM). Recognition of β-Mans by the host depends on their polymerization degree and molecules they are associated to. A family of nine enzymes, β-1,2 mannosyltransferases (Bmts), is involved in β-Mans biosynthesis of C. albicans. These enzymes have distinct functions with specificities of substrate and step of β-mannosylation. According to these specificities, especially for initiation of β-Mans biosynthesis (Bmt1: acid stable N-mannan- Bmt2: acid labile N-mannan- Bmt5: PLM), the thesis project was designed to define i) the respective role of β-Mans in C. albicans virulence and ii) the contribution of the different cell wall glycoconjugates in β-Mans surface expression. Double mutants (bmt1bmt2δ and bmt2bmt5δ) expressing β-Mans only on a fraction or a type of glycoconjugate and a triple mutant (bmt1bmt2bmt5δ) expressing no more β-Mans have been generated. We have first reassessed MPs β-mannosylation which was originally deduced from the PPM one. After analysis of O-mannosides from bmtsδ mutants, we have evidenced that Bmt1 and Bmt3 are involved in MPs O-mannosylation by adding the first and the second β-mannose, respectively. β-mannosylation of both MPs and a recombinant protein in bmt1δ mutant was checked and we evidenced an essential role of Bmt1 in this process. Immunofluorescence assays using the different mutants revealed that PPM and MPs are responsible for β-Mans surface expression. Expression of β-Mans at the cell surface had an unexpected impact on virulence in two murine models of disseminated candidiasis. Strains expressing superficial β-Mans were less virulent than mutants with β-mannosylation defects. These mutants, mainly bmt1bmt2bmt5δ, were nevertheless less virulent in mice which do not express galectin-3, lectin that binds β-Mans. These results show different biologic properties of β-Mans depending on their localization and the conjugate they are associated to: they can enable yeast clearance via galectin 3 but they can also contribute to virulence certainly via PLM. PLM β-mannosylation is essential for the glycolipid inflammatory activities in macrophages and its modulation can lead to yeast resistance to some antifungals. Regulation of glycoconjugates β-mannosylation enables C. albicans to adapt to different conditions. PPM and MPs β-mannosylation is reduced at 37°C and at lower pH, which can help C. albicans to counteract host defense in vivo as it is then less recognized by galectin 3. We have also evidenced a mechanism by which C. albicans can switch serotype after Bmt1 inactivation. This mechanism, not completely described, allows the yeast to better colonize the murine digestive tract. Our results highlight both the complex expression of β-Mans in C. albicans cell wall and their role in virulence according to their localization and the adaptation of the yeast to different environments

Impact de l’expression des β-1,2 mannosides pariétaux de Candida albicans sur la virulence

Β-1,2 oligomannosides (β-Mans) are rare in the living world and are considered as factors contributing to C. albicans virulence. They are present in the cell wall associated to N-glycans of a high mannose polymer linked to a peptide, the phosphopeptidomannan (PPM) and to mannoproteins (MPs) and they are part of the glycan moiety of a glycolipid from the mannose-inositol-phosphoceramid family, the phospholipomannan (PLM). Recognition of β-Mans by the host depends on their polymerization degree and molecules they are associated to. A family of nine enzymes, β-1,2 mannosyltransferases (Bmts), is involved in β-Mans biosynthesis of C. albicans. These enzymes have distinct functions with specificities of substrate and step of β-mannosylation. According to these specificities, especially for initiation of β-Mans biosynthesis (Bmt1: acid stable N-mannan- Bmt2: acid labile N-mannan- Bmt5: PLM), the thesis project was designed to define i) the respective role of β-Mans in C. albicans virulence and ii) the contribution of the different cell wall glycoconjugates in β-Mans surface expression. Double mutants (bmt1bmt2δ and bmt2bmt5δ) expressing β-Mans only on a fraction or a type of glycoconjugate and a triple mutant (bmt1bmt2bmt5δ) expressing no more β-Mans have been generated. We have first reassessed MPs β-mannosylation which was originally deduced from the PPM one. After analysis of O-mannosides from bmtsδ mutants, we have evidenced that Bmt1 and Bmt3 are involved in MPs O-mannosylation by adding the first and the second β-mannose, respectively. β-mannosylation of both MPs and a recombinant protein in bmt1δ mutant was checked and we evidenced an essential role of Bmt1 in this process. Immunofluorescence assays using the different mutants revealed that PPM and MPs are responsible for β-Mans surface expression. Expression of β-Mans at the cell surface had an unexpected impact on virulence in two murine models of disseminated candidiasis. Strains expressing superficial β-Mans were less virulent than mutants with β-mannosylation defects. These mutants, mainly bmt1bmt2bmt5δ, were nevertheless less virulent in mice which do not express galectin-3, lectin that binds β-Mans. These results show different biologic properties of β-Mans depending on their localization and the conjugate they are associated to: they can enable yeast clearance via galectin 3 but they can also contribute to virulence certainly via PLM. PLM β-mannosylation is essential for the glycolipid inflammatory activities in macrophages and its modulation can lead to yeast resistance to some antifungals. Regulation of glycoconjugates β-mannosylation enables C. albicans to adapt to different conditions. PPM and MPs β-mannosylation is reduced at 37°C and at lower pH, which can help C. albicans to counteract host defense in vivo as it is then less recognized by galectin 3. We have also evidenced a mechanism by which C. albicans can switch serotype after Bmt1 inactivation. This mechanism, not completely described, allows the yeast to better colonize the murine digestive tract. Our results highlight both the complex expression of β-Mans in C. albicans cell wall and their role in virulence according to their localization and the adaptation of the yeast to different environments.Les β-1,2 oligomannosides (β-Mans), dont la présence est relativement rare dans le monde vivant, font partie des facteurs de C. albicans contribuant à sa virulence. Ils sont retrouvés dans la paroi de la levure associés aux N-glycannes d’un haut polymère de mannoses lié à un peptide, le phosphopeptidomannane (PPM) et des mannoprotéines (MPs) ainsi qu’à la copule glycannique d’un glycolipide de la famille des mannose-inositol-phosphocéramides, le phospholipomannane (PLM). Les mécanismes de reconnaissance des β-Mans par l’hôte dépendent du degré de polymérisation des oligomannosides et des molécules qui les portent. Une famille de 9 enzymes, les β-1,2 mannosyltransférases (Bmts), permettent la biosynthèse des β-Mans de C. albicans. Ces enzymes ont des fonctions distinctes car leur activité a une spécificité assez stricte qui dépend du glycoconjugué et de l’étape de β-mannosylation. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse s’est appuyé sur la spécificité des Bmts, principalement celles initiant la biosynthèse des β-Mans (Bmt1: N-mannanes acido stables – Bmt2: N-mannanes acido labiles – Bmt5: PLM) pour définir i) le rôle respectif des β-Mans dans la virulence de C. albicans et ii) la contribution des différents glycoconjugués dans l’expression de surface des β-Mans. Une grande partie de l’étude a reposé sur la génération de doubles mutants (bmt1bmt2δ) et (bmt2bmt5δ) exprimant des β-Mans uniquement sur une fraction ou un type de glycoconjugué et d'un triple mutant (bmt1bmt2bmt5δ) n’exprimant plus de β-Mans. Nous avons tout d’abord réévalué la β-mannosylation des MPs qui était jusqu’à présent déduite de celle du PPM. En analysant les O-mannosides des mutants bmtsδ, nous avons pu mettre en évidence l’implication de Bmt1 et Bmt3, qui ajoutent respectivement le 1er et le 2ème β-mannose, dans la O-mannosylation des MPs. L’analyse de la β-mannosylation des MPs et d’une protéine recombinante chez le mutant bmt1δ a mis en évidence le rôle essentiel de Bmt1 dans ce processus. L’analyse en immunofluorescence des différents mutants a montré que seul le PPM et les MPs sont responsables de l’expression de surface des β-Mans. Cette expression a un impact inattendu sur la virulence dans des modèles murins de candidoses disséminées. Les souches exprimant des β-Mans en surface sont en effet moins virulentes que les mutants présentant des défauts de β-Mannosylation. Les mutants, principalement bmt1bmt2bmt5δ sont néanmoins moins virulents chez des souris n’exprimant plus la galectine 3, lectine reconnaissant les β-Mans. Ces résultats montrent le double rôle des β-Mans selon leur localisation et le conjugué qui les porte: d’une part ils permettent à l’hôte d’éliminer la levure via la galectine 3 et d’autre part ils peuvent contribuer à sa virulence via certainement le PLM. La β-mannosylation du PLM est indispensable pour l’activité inflammatoire du PLM sur les macrophages et sa modulation peut entraîner la résistance de la levure à certains antifongiques. La régulation de la β-mannosylation de ses glycoconjugués est un moyen pour C. albicans de s’adapter à différentes conditions. La β-mannosylation du PPM et des MPs est réduite à 37°C et lorsque le pH diminue, pouvant ainsi permettre à la levure d’être moins reconnue in vivo et d’échapper aux mécanismes de défense de l’hôte. Nous avons pu également mettre en évidence un mécanisme permettant à C. albicans de changer de sérotype en inactivant Bmt1. Ce mécanisme qui n’est pas encore parfaitement décrit, permet à la levure de mieux coloniser le tube digestif de souris. Nos résultats mettent ainsi en évidence d’une part l’expression complexe des β-Mans dans la paroi de C. albicans et leur rôle dans la virulence en fonction de leur localisation et d’autre part l’adaptation de la levure à différents environnements

A coiled-coil protein is required for coordination of karyokinesis and cytokinesis in Toxoplasma gondii

International audienceToxoplasma gondii is a unicellular eukaryotic pathogen that belongs to the Apicomplexa phylum, which encompasses some of the deadliest pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. The centrosome is key to the organisation and coordination of the cell cycle and division of apicomplexan parasites. The T. gondii centrosome possesses a particular bipartite structure (outer and inner cores). One of the main roles of the centrosome is to ensure proper coordination of karyokinesis. However, how these 2 events are coordinated is still unknown in T. gondii, for which the centrosome components are poorly described. To gain more insights into the biology and the composition of the T. gondii centrosome, we characterised a protein that resides at the interface of the outer and inner core centrosomes. TgCep530 is a large coiled‐coil protein with an essential role in the survival of the parasite. Depletion of this protein leads to the accumulation of parasites lacking nuclei and disruption of the normal cell cycle. Lack of TgCep530 results in a discoordination between the nuclear cycle and the budding cycle that yields fully formed parasites without nuclei. TgCep530 has a crucial role in the coordination of karyokinesis and cytokinesis

Cell-bound galectin-3 does not potentiate PLM-A-induced TNF-α production.

<p>(<b>A</b>). The levels of endogenous galectin-3 bound to the J774 cell surface were determined by immunofluorescent staining using anti-galectin-3 antibody and FITC-conjugated secondary antibody. Cells were then fixed and analyzed by fluorescence microscopy. (<b>B</b>). Alternatively, cells were incubated with 10 µg/ml of exogenous rGal-3 for 1h at 20°C before staining and analysis performed as described in (A). Insert shows high magnification of labeled cells. (<b>C</b> and <b>D</b>) Cells were preincubated for 1h with (■) or not (□) 10 µg/ml of exogenous rGal-3 prior to the addition of 10 µg/ml of PLM-A or PLM-BMT6∆ (<b>C</b>) 10 µg/ml of curdlan or 500 ng/ml of Pam3CSK4 (<b>D</b>). Cells were cultivated for additional 4h. Then, supernatants were collected and TNF-α concentration was determined by ELISA. Results are presented as the mean ± standard deviation from 3 independent experiments. *<i>p<0</i>.<i>05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.0005</i>.</p

Structural comparison between glycan chains of PLM-A, PLM-B and PLM-BMT6Δ.

<p>(<b>A</b>). General structure of PLMs used in the present study, showing the differences in glycan chain length linked to the lipid backbone. (<b>B</b>). PLM-A was isolated from SC5314, a WT <i>C. albicans</i> serotype A strain; PLM-B, isolated from the NIHB strain, a serotype B strain and; PLM-BMT6∆, isolated from the <i>bmt6</i>∆ mutant. Following, PLMs were submitted to hydrolysis and analyzed by Fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE) method. The analysis shows the different mannosidic chains released after the hydrolysis protocol. Isolated mannosides (M2, M3, M4, M8, M11-13) were used as control. </p

Soluble galectin-3 potentiates PLM-A-induced TNF-α production.

<p>Exogenous rGal-3 (10 µg/ml) was preincubated (■) or not (□) with increasing concentrations of PLM-A (A), PLM-B (B) or PLM-BMT6∆ (C) for 1h. The mixtures were then added to J774 macrophages and incubated for an additional 4h. TNF-α concentration in cell-free supernatants was determined by ELISA. (D) Exogenous rGal-3 (10 µg/ml) was preincubated (■) or not (□) with 10 µg/ml of curdlan or 500 ng/ml of Pam3CSK4. Results are represented as the mean ± standard deviation from 3 independent experiments. P values refer to the statistical differences between the effect exerted by galectin-3 alone and in association with PLMs. *<i>p<0</i>.<i>05; **p<0.01</i>.</p