Colonización por Pseudomonas aeruginosa en los enfermos sometidos a ventilación mecánica

Consultable des del TDXTítol obtingut de la portada digitalitzadaObjetivos: Los objetivos planteados en el presente estudio fueron: i) Análisis de la colonización ambiental por P. aeruginosa en la UCI del Hospital de Sabadell; ii) Análisis del origen de la colonización y la infección causada por P. aeruginosa en los enfermos sometidos a VM valorando por un lado el origen endógeno o exógeno de dicha colonización e infección, por otro lado la secuencia de la colonización; iii) Determinar la existencia de cultivos policlonales de P. aeruginosa analizando su implicación en los estudios epidemiológicos de la colonización y/o infección así como en la heterogeneidad de los fenotipos de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos en los cultivos de P. aeruginosa. Material: 160 aislamientos ambientales de P. aeruginosa (analizando, siempre que era posible, 4 colonias por cultivo) procedentes de los 41 cultivos obtenidos de 5 cortes ambientales realizados; 348 aislamientos ambientales de P. aeruginosa procedentes de los 93 cultivos obtenidos de los grifos de los boxes donde permanecían ingresados los pacientes; 1.104 aislamientos P. aeruginosa obtenidos de las distintas localizaciones anatómicas estudiadas en los 39 pacientes colonizados. Marcadores: (I) Electroforesis en campo pulsante (PFGE); (II) estudio de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos. Resultados y Discusión: Se evidenció una importante heterogeneidad genética en las cepas P. aeruginosa aisladas en la UCI al tipificarlas mediante PFGE. La existencia de variaciones subclonales en algunos de los pulsotipos (PTs) obtenidos se asoció a la persistencia de los PTs y a la frecuencia de su aislamiento. P. aeruginosa mostró especial predilección por los grifos de los boxes y las superficies adyacentes a los mismos, siendo un reservorio estable. Por el contrario, su aislamiento en las manos del personal sanitario fue infrecuente. La colonización de los pacientes fue, mayoritariamente, de origen exógeno o ambiental. En la mitad de los episodios de neumonía asociada a la VM, las cepas responsables eran propias de los pacientes por lo que no se verían influidas por las medidas encaminadas a eliminar el reservorio ambiental. Los grifos de los boxes se identificaron como el reservorio principal de P. aeruginosa durante el período de VM. Sin embargo, tan sólo 1 de las 8 cepas asociadas a neumonía procedía del grifo. El lugar inicial de colonización sólo pudo identificarse en una tercera parte de los pacientes con colonización del tracto respiratorio inferior adquirida durante el período de VM, en estos casos, tanto el estómago como el tracto respiratorio superior tuvieron una importancia equivalente. Por otra parte, en los episodios de NAV en los que pudo determinarse el lugar inicial de colonización, el estómago no fue el origen. El 13 % de los cultivos fueron policlonales. En el 23 % de dichos cultivos no pudieron identificarse los distintos PTs presentes en función de la morfología de las colonias. Los cultivos policlonales fueron un hecho frecuente en los cultivos de los grifos y, en consecuencia, en los procedentes del tracto gastrointestinal de los enfermos, especialmente el estómago. En cambio, es importante resaltar que los cultivos provenientes del tracto respiratorio y de las muestras diagnósticas de NAV, con independencia de la morfología de las colonias, han mostrado un único PT. En el 10,6 % de los 341 cultivos con una morfología colonial se detectó más de un antibiotipo. El estudio de sensibilidad a partir de varias colonias permitiría detectar poblaciones mixtas, siendo necesario un estudio posterior para identificar los distintos fenotipos de sensibilidad coexistentes. Se detectó una cierta falta de estabilidad en el antibiotipo ya que el 11,4% de los cultivos con 1 PT mostraba más de un antibiotipo. Por otra parte, también se evidenció la falta de poder discriminativo del antibiotipo ya que en el 69% de los cultivos con más de 1 PT sólo se observó un antibiotipo. Para determinar el origen de las cepas de P. aeruginosa y las vías de colonización de los enfermos sometidos a VM, es necesario realizar el seguimiento de las distintas localizaciones anatómicas y del ambiente junto con la aplicación de un método de tipificación como el PFGE. Asimismo, es necesario analizar varias colonias por cultivo.Objectives: i) Analysis of the environmental colonisation of the ICU by P. aeruginosa; ii) Analysis of the origin of the colonisation and the infection caused by P. aeruginosa in the mechanically ventilated patients analysing on the one hand the endogenous or exogenous origin of this colonisation and infection, and on the other hand the sequence of the colonisation; iii) To determine the existence of polyclonal cultures of P. aeruginosa analysing their implication in the epidemic studies of the colonisation and/or infection as well as in the heterogeneity of the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of P. aeruginosa. Material: 160 environmental isolates of P.aeruginosa (analysing, whenever it was possible, 4 colonies for each culture) coming from the 41 cultures obtained in the 5 environmental surveys. 348 environmental isolates of P. aeruginosa obtained from the 93 cultures of the taps of the rooms and 1.104 isolates of P. aeruginosa belonged to the different anatomical locations studied in the 39 colonised patients. Markers: (I) PFGE and (II) Study of the antimicrobial susceptibility. Results and Discussion: An important genetic heterogeneity was evidenced in the P. aeruginosa strains isolated in an ICU when were typing by PFGE. The existence of subclonal variations in some of the obtained pulsotypes (PTs) was associated to the persistence of the PTs and their frequency of isolation. P. aeruginosa showed special predilection for the moist sites of the ICU (the taps of the rooms and the adjacent surfaces to the same ones) that have been a stable reservoir of this micro-organism. On the contrary, its isolation from the hands of the health care personnel was uncommon. The colonisation of the patients was, for the most part, of exogenous or environmental origin. In half of the VAP episodes, the responsible strains were of the own patients for what they would not be influenced by the measures guided to eliminate the environmental reservoir. The taps of the rooms were identified as the main reservoir of P. aeruginosa during the ventilation period. However, only 1 of the 8 strains associated to pneumonia came from the tap. The initial site of colonisation could only be identified in a third part of the patients with colonisation of the lower respiratory tract acquired during the period of MV, in these cases, as much the stomach as the upper airway had an equivalent importance. On the other hand, in those episodes of VAP where the initial site of colonisation could be determined, the stomach was not the origin. The 13% of the total cultures were polyclonal. The 23 % of these cultures could not be differentiated according to the morphology of the colonies. The polyclonal cultures were a frequent event in the cultures obtained from the taps and, in consequence, in the belonged to the gastrointestinal tract, especially to the stomach. In the other hand, it is noteworthy that the cultures belonged to the respiratory tract and the diagnostic respiratory secretions of VAP, independently of the morphology of the colonies, had only one pulsotype. In the 10,6 % of the 341 cultures, with colonies of the same morphotype, was detected more than one antibiotype. The study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of several colonies would allow detecting mixed populations, being necessary a later analysis to identify the different coexistent susceptibility phenotypes. A certain lack of stability was detected due to that a 11.4 % of the cultures with one pulsotype showed more than one antibiotype. Moreover, it was also evidenced a lack of discriminatory power due to that a 69% of the cultures with more than one pulsotype showed only one antibiotype. To determine the origin of the P. aeruginosa strains and the source and transmission routes of colonisation of the ventilated patients, it is necessary the surveillance study of different body sites over the time and the environment together with the applying of a typing method like the PFGE. In the same way, it is necessary to analyse different colonies in each culture

Origin of the mobile di-hydro-pteroate synthase gene determining sulfonamide resistance in clinical isolates

Sulfonamides are synthetic chemotherapeutic agents that work as competitive inhibitors of the di-hydro-pteroate synthase (DHPS) enzyme, encoded by the folP gene. Resistance to sulfonamides is widespread in the clinical setting and predominantly mediated by plasmid- and integron-borne sul1-3 genes encoding mutant DHPS enzymes that do not bind sulfonamides. In spite of their clinical importance, the genetic origin of sul1-3 genes remains unknown. Here we analyze sul genes and their genetic neighborhoods to uncover sul signature elements that enable the elucidation of their genetic origin. We identify a protein sequence Sul motif associated with sul-encoded proteins, as well as consistent association of a phosphoglucosamine mutase gene (glmM) with the sul2 gene. We identify chromosomal folP genes bearing these genetic markers in two bacterial families: the Rhodobiaceae and the Leptospiraceae. Bayesian phylogenetic inference of FolP/Sul and GlmM protein sequences clearly establishes that sul1-2 and sul3 genes originated as a mobilization of folP genes present in, respectively, the Rhodobiaceae and the Leptospiraceae, and indicate that the Rhodobiaceae folP gene was transferred from the Leptospiraceae. Analysis of %GC content in folP/sul gene sequences supports the phylogenetic inference results and indicates that the emergence of the Sul motif in chromosomally encoded FolP proteins is ancient and considerably predates the clinical introduction of sulfonamides. In vitro assays reveal that both the Rhodobiaceae and the Leptospiraceae, but not other related chromosomally encoded FolP proteins confer resistance in a sulfonamide-sensitive Escherichia coli background, indicating that the Sul motif is associated with sulfonamide resistance. Given the absence of any known natural sulfonamides targeting DHPS, these results provide a novel perspective on the emergence of resistance to synthetic chemotherapeutic agents, whereby preexisting resistant variants in the vast bacterial pangenome may be rapidly selected for and disseminated upon the clinical introduction of novel chemotherapeuticals

Bioelectrochemically-assisted degradation of chloroform by a co-culture of Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium

Using bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) to provide electrochemically generated hydrogen is a promising technology to provide electron donors for reductive dechlorination by organohalide-respiring bacteria. In this study, we inoculated two syntrophic dechlorinating cultures containing Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium to sequentially transform chloroform (CF) to acetate in a BES using a graphite fiber brush as the electrode. In this co-culture, Dehalobacter transformed CF to stoichiometric amounts of dichloromethane (DCM) via organohalide respiration, whereas the Dehalobacterium -containing culture converted DCM to acetate via fermentation. BES were initially inoculated with Dehalobacter, and sequential cathodic potentials of −0.6, −0.7, and −0.8 V were poised after consuming three CF doses (500 μM) per each potential during a time-span of 83 days. At the end of this period, the accumulated DCM was degraded in the following seven days after the inoculation of Dehalobacterium. At this point, four consecutive amendments of CF at increasing concentrations of 200, 400, 600, and 800 μM were sequentially transformed by the combined degradation activity of Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium. The Dehalobacter 16S rRNA gene copies increased four orders of magnitude during the whole period. The coulombic efficiencies associated with the degradation of CF reached values > 60% at a cathodic potential of −0.8 V when the degradation rate of CF achieved the highest values. This study shows the advantages of combining syntrophic bacteria to fully detoxify chlorinated compounds in BESs and further expands the use of this technology for treating water bodies impacted with pollutants

Genomics of three new bacteriophages useful in the biocontrol of Salmonella

Non-typhoid Salmonella is the principal pathogen related to food-borne diseases throughout the world. Widespread antibiotic resistance has adversely affected human health and has encouraged the search for alternative antimicrobial agents. The advances in bacteriophage therapy highlight their use in controlling a broad spectrum of food-borne pathogens. One requirement for the use of bacteriophages as antibacterials is the characterization of their genomes. In this work, complete genome sequencing and molecular analyses were carried out for three new virulent Salmonella-specific bacteriophages (UAB_Phi20, UAB_Phi78, and UAB_Phi87) able to infect a broad range of Salmonella strains. Sequence analysis of the genomes of UAB_Phi20, UAB_Phi78, and UAB_Phi87 bacteriophages did not evidence the presence of known virulence-associated and antibiotic resistance genes, and potential immunoreactive food allergens. The UAB_Phi20 genome comprised 41,809 base pairs with 80 open reading frames (ORFs); 24 of them with assigned function. Genome sequence showed a high homology of UAB_Phi20 with Salmonella bacteriophage P22 and other P22likeviruses genus of the Podoviridae family, including ST64T and ST104. The DNA of UAB_Phi78 contained 44,110 bp including direct terminal repeats (DTR) of 179 bp and 58 putative ORFs were predicted and 20 were assigned function. This bacteriophage was assigned to the SP6likeviruses genus of the Podoviridae family based on its high similarity not only with SP6 but also with the K1-5, K1E, and K1F bacteriophages, all of which infect Escherichia coli. The UAB_Phi87 genome sequence consisted of 87,669 bp with terminal direct repeats of 608 bp; although 148 ORFs were identified, putative functions could be assigned to only 29 of them. Sequence comparisons revealed the mosaic structure of UAB_Phi87 and its high similarity with bacteriophages Felix O1 and wV8 of E. coli with respect to genetic content and functional organization. Phylogenetic analysis of large terminase subunits confirms their packaging strategies and grouping to the different phage genus type. All these studies are necessary for the development and the use of an efficient cocktail with commercial applications in bacteriophage therapy against Salmonella

Repurposing Disulfiram as an Antimicrobial Agent in Topical Infections

Antimicrobial drugs applied topically offer several advantages. However, the widespread use of antibiotics has led to increasing antimicrobial resistance. One interesting approach in the drug discovery process is drug repurposing. Disulfiram, which was originally approved as an anti-alcoholism drug, offers an attractive alternative to treat topical multidrug resistance bacteria in skin human infections. This study aimed to evaluate the biopharmaceutical characteristics of the drug and the effects arising from its topical application in detail. Microdilution susceptibility testing showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes. Dermal absorption revealed no permeation in pig skin. The quantification of the drug retained in pig skin demonstrated concentrations in the stratum corneum and epidermis, enough to treat skin infections. Moreover, in vitro cytotoxicity and micro-array analyses were performed to better understand the mechanism of action and revealed the importance of the drug as a metal ion chelator. Together, our findings suggest that disulfiram has the potential to be repurposed as an effective antibiotic to treat superficial human skin infections

Biodistribution of liposome-encapsulated bacteriophages and their transcytosis during oral phage therapy

This study sheds light on the biodistribution of orally administered, liposome-encapsulated bacteriophages, and their transcytosis through intestinal cell layers. Fluorochrome-labeled bacteriophages were used together with a non-invasive imaging methodology in the in vivo visualization of bacteriophages in the stomach and intestinal tract of mice. In those studies, phage encapsulation resulted in a significant increase of the labeled phages in the mouse stomach, even 6 h after their oral administration, and without a decrease in their concentration. By contrast, the visualization of encapsulated and non-encapsulated phages in the intestine were similar. Our in vivo observations were corroborated by culture methods and ex vivo experiments, which also showed that the percentage of encapsulated phages in the stomach remained constant (50%) compared to the amount of initially administered product. However, the use of conventional microbiological methods, which employ bile salts to break down liposomes, prevented the detection of encapsulated phages in the intestine. The ex vivo data showed a higher concentration of non-encapsulated than encapsulated phages in liver, kidney, and even muscle up to 6 h post-administration. Encapsulated bacteriophages were able to reach the liver, spleen, and muscle, with values of 38% ± 6.3%, 68% ± 8.6%, and 47% ± 7.4%, respectively, which persisted over the course of the experiment. Confocal laser scanning microscopy of an in vitro co-culture of human Caco-2/HT29/Raji-B cells revealed that Vybrant-Dil-stained liposomes containing labeled bacteriophages were preferably embedded in cell membranes. No transcytosis of encapsulated phages was detected in this in vitro model, whereas SYBR-gold-labeled non-encapsulated bacteriophages were able to cross the membrane. Our work demonstrates the prolonged persistence of liposome-encapsulated phages in the stomach and their adherence to the intestinal membrane. These observations could explain the greater long-term efficacy of phage therapy using liposome-encapsulated phages

The evolution of the ventilatory ratio is a prognostic factor in mechanically ventilated COVID-19 ARDS patients

Background: Mortality due to COVID-19 is high, especially in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. The purpose of the study is to investigate associations between mortality and variables measured during the first three days of mechanical ventilation in patients with COVID-19 intubated at ICU admission. Methods: Multicenter, observational, cohort study includes consecutive patients with COVID-19 admitted to 44 Spanish ICUs between February 25 and July 31, 2020, who required intubation at ICU admission and mechanical ventilation for more than three days. We collected demographic and clinical data prior to admission; information about clinical evolution at days 1 and 3 of mechanical ventilation; and outcomes. Results: Of the 2,095 patients with COVID-19 admitted to the ICU, 1,118 (53.3%) were intubated at day 1 and remained under mechanical ventilation at day three. From days 1 to 3, PaO2/FiO2 increased from 115.6 [80.0-171.2] to 180.0 [135.4-227.9] mmHg and the ventilatory ratio from 1.73 [1.33-2.25] to 1.96 [1.61-2.40]. In-hospital mortality was 38.7%. A higher increase between ICU admission and day 3 in the ventilatory ratio (OR 1.04 [CI 1.01-1.07], p = 0.030) and creatinine levels (OR 1.05 [CI 1.01-1.09], p = 0.005) and a lower increase in platelet counts (OR 0.96 [CI 0.93-1.00], p = 0.037) were independently associated with a higher risk of death. No association between mortality and the PaO2/FiO2 variation was observed (OR 0.99 [CI 0.95 to 1.02], p = 0.47). Conclusions: Higher ventilatory ratio and its increase at day 3 is associated with mortality in patients with COVID-19 receiving mechanical ventilation at ICU admission. No association was found in the PaO2/FiO2 variation

Colonización por Pseudomonas aeruginosa en los enfermos sometidos a ventilación mecánica

Objetivos: Los objetivos planteados en el presente estudio fueron: i) Análisis de la colonización ambiental por P. aeruginosa en la UCI del Hospital de Sabadell; ii) Análisis del origen de la colonización y la infección causada por P. aeruginosa en los enfermos sometidos a VM valorando por un lado el origen endógeno o exógeno de dicha colonización e infección, por otro lado la secuencia de la colonización; iii) Determinar la existencia de cultivos policlonales de P. aeruginosa analizando su implicación en los estudios epidemiológicos de la colonización y/o infección así como en la heterogeneidad de los fenotipos de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos en los cultivos de P. aeruginosa. Material: 160 aislamientos ambientales de P. aeruginosa (analizando, siempre que era posible, 4 colonias por cultivo) procedentes de los 41 cultivos obtenidos de 5 cortes ambientales realizados; 348 aislamientos ambientales de P. aeruginosa procedentes de los 93 cultivos obtenidos de los grifos de los boxes donde permanecían ingresados los pacientes; 1.104 aislamientos P. aeruginosa obtenidos de las distintas localizaciones anatómicas estudiadas en los 39 pacientes colonizados. Marcadores: (I) Electroforesis en campo pulsante (PFGE); (II) estudio de sensibilidad a los antimicrobianos. Resultados y Discusión: Se evidenció una importante heterogeneidad genética en las cepas P. aeruginosa aisladas en la UCI al tipificarlas mediante PFGE. La existencia de variaciones subclonales en algunos de los pulsotipos (PTs) obtenidos se asoció a la persistencia de los PTs y a la frecuencia de su aislamiento. P. aeruginosa mostró especial predilección por los grifos de los boxes y las superficies adyacentes a los mismos, siendo un reservorio estable. Por el contrario, su aislamiento en las manos del personal sanitario fue infrecuente. La colonización de los pacientes fue, mayoritariamente, de origen exógeno o ambiental. En la mitad de los episodios de neumonía asociada a la VM, las cepas responsables eran propias de los pacientes por lo que no se verían influidas por las medidas encaminadas a eliminar el reservorio ambiental. Los grifos de los boxes se identificaron como el reservorio principal de P. aeruginosa durante el período de VM. Sin embargo, tan sólo 1 de las 8 cepas asociadas a neumonía procedía del grifo. El lugar inicial de colonización sólo pudo identificarse en una tercera parte de los pacientes con colonización del tracto respiratorio inferior adquirida durante el período de VM, en estos casos, tanto el estómago como el tracto respiratorio superior tuvieron una importancia equivalente. Por otra parte, en los episodios de NAV en los que pudo determinarse el lugar inicial de colonización, el estómago no fue el origen. El 13 % de los cultivos fueron policlonales. En el 23 % de dichos cultivos no pudieron identificarse los distintos PTs presentes en función de la morfología de las colonias. Los cultivos policlonales fueron un hecho frecuente en los cultivos de los grifos y, en consecuencia, en los procedentes del tracto gastrointestinal de los enfermos, especialmente el estómago. En cambio, es importante resaltar que los cultivos provenientes del tracto respiratorio y de las muestras diagnósticas de NAV, con independencia de la morfología de las colonias, han mostrado un único PT. En el 10,6 % de los 341 cultivos con una morfología colonial se detectó más de un antibiotipo. El estudio de sensibilidad a partir de varias colonias permitiría detectar poblaciones mixtas, siendo necesario un estudio posterior para identificar los distintos fenotipos de sensibilidad coexistentes. Se detectó una cierta falta de estabilidad en el antibiotipo ya que el 11,4% de los cultivos con 1 PT mostraba más de un antibiotipo. Por otra parte, también se evidenció la falta de poder discriminativo del antibiotipo ya que en el 69% de los cultivos con más de 1 PT sólo se observó un antibiotipo. Para determinar el origen de las cepas de P. aeruginosa y las vías de colonización de los enfermos sometidos a VM, es necesario realizar el seguimiento de las distintas localizaciones anatómicas y del ambiente junto con la aplicación de un método de tipificación como el PFGE. Asimismo, es necesario analizar varias colonias por cultivo.Objectives: i) Analysis of the environmental colonisation of the ICU by P. aeruginosa; ii) Analysis of the origin of the colonisation and the infection caused by P. aeruginosa in the mechanically ventilated patients analysing on the one hand the endogenous or exogenous origin of this colonisation and infection, and on the other hand the sequence of the colonisation; iii) To determine the existence of polyclonal cultures of P. aeruginosa analysing their implication in the epidemic studies of the colonisation and/or infection as well as in the heterogeneity of the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of P. aeruginosa. Material: 160 environmental isolates of P.aeruginosa (analysing, whenever it was possible, 4 colonies for each culture) coming from the 41 cultures obtained in the 5 environmental surveys. 348 environmental isolates of P. aeruginosa obtained from the 93 cultures of the taps of the rooms and 1.104 isolates of P. aeruginosa belonged to the different anatomical locations studied in the 39 colonised patients. Markers: (I) PFGE and (II) Study of the antimicrobial susceptibility. Results and Discussion: An important genetic heterogeneity was evidenced in the P. aeruginosa strains isolated in an ICU when were typing by PFGE. The existence of subclonal variations in some of the obtained pulsotypes (PTs) was associated to the persistence of the PTs and their frequency of isolation. P. aeruginosa showed special predilection for the moist sites of the ICU (the taps of the rooms and the adjacent surfaces to the same ones) that have been a stable reservoir of this micro-organism. On the contrary, its isolation from the hands of the health care personnel was uncommon. The colonisation of the patients was, for the most part, of exogenous or environmental origin. In half of the VAP episodes, the responsible strains were of the own patients for what they would not be influenced by the measures guided to eliminate the environmental reservoir. The taps of the rooms were identified as the main reservoir of P. aeruginosa during the ventilation period. However, only 1 of the 8 strains associated to pneumonia came from the tap. The initial site of colonisation could only be identified in a third part of the patients with colonisation of the lower respiratory tract acquired during the period of MV, in these cases, as much the stomach as the upper airway had an equivalent importance. On the other hand, in those episodes of VAP where the initial site of colonisation could be determined, the stomach was not the origin. The 13% of the total cultures were polyclonal. The 23 % of these cultures could not be differentiated according to the morphology of the colonies. The polyclonal cultures were a frequent event in the cultures obtained from the taps and, in consequence, in the belonged to the gastrointestinal tract, especially to the stomach. In the other hand, it is noteworthy that the cultures belonged to the respiratory tract and the diagnostic respiratory secretions of VAP, independently of the morphology of the colonies, had only one pulsotype. In the 10,6 % of the 341 cultures, with colonies of the same morphotype, was detected more than one antibiotype. The study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of several colonies would allow detecting mixed populations, being necessary a later analysis to identify the different coexistent susceptibility phenotypes. A certain lack of stability was detected due to that a 11.4 % of the cultures with one pulsotype showed more than one antibiotype. Moreover, it was also evidenced a lack of discriminatory power due to that a 69% of the cultures with more than one pulsotype showed only one antibiotype. To determine the origin of the P. aeruginosa strains and the source and transmission routes of colonisation of the ventilated patients, it is necessary the surveillance study of different body sites over the time and the environment together with the applying of a typing method like the PFGE. In the same way, it is necessary to analyse different colonies in each culture