Wolverine Food Habitats and Foraging Strategies in Glacier National Park, Montana

From 2003-2007 we captured and instrumented 28 wolverines (Gulo gulo) in Glacier National Park to investigate reproduction and recruitment. We collected 189 scat samples at reproductive den, forage and rendezvous sites, and documented 90 prey species through observation and prey remains found at similar sites. Seasonal scat analysis provided evidence of differences in prey species consumed during winter (n = 170), summer (n = 19), and reproductive den (n = 103) periods. Ungulates were the most frequently observed prey found in all scats (71%; N=135), with Cervid remains being observed most often (37%; n = 70). Hibernating rodents (ground squirrels and marmots) (36%; n = 68) were the next most utilized prey, with the third most documented prey being mice and voles (31%; n = 56). Vegetation (72%; n = 169), soil material (31%; n = 59), and bone (90%; n = 171) were also found in scats. Seasonal importance of prey was documented, with ungulates being the most observed prey in winter scats (75%; n = 128) and den period scats (79%; n = 81), and hibernating rodents being most observed in summer scats (47%; n = 9). A similar condition was found with analysis of all prey remains (n = 90); ungulates were consumed most often (69%; n = 63), with hibernating rodents as the second most documented prey (12%; n = 11). Wolverines exhibited seasonal dietary shifts in that ungulates were consumed most frequently during winter (77%; n = 55) and the den period (78%; n = 17), with hibernating rodents the most frequent prey documented in summer (50%; n = 9). Wolverine foraging strategies, including searching tree wells, fishing, decapitation, and food caching are also discussed

Wolverine Reproductive Den Habitat in Glacier National Park, Montana

Wolverine reproductive dens occur in habitat not easily accessible to humans during the denning period (Feb – May) and can be challenging to find.  As such, few den sites have been precisely described. From 2003 – 2007 we located and documented 14 natal and maternal dens of 3 reproductive female wolverine in Glacier National Park.  Two females were known to have produced young in multiple years, using different den sites each year.  Reproductive dens occurred at an average elevation of 1890m (range: 1805-1999m), on 9° slopes (range: 5-22o), within a variable range of aspects (   =263°), and with an average snow depth of 2.6m (range: 2.4-3.4m). Den structures included downed trees, large boulders, and rock caves associated with alpine cirques, ridges, and cliff bands at, or below, existing tree line.  Distance to occupied human development averaged 6.4km, and distance between denning areas of the same female in different years averaged 5.8 km.  Various climate change models predict less persistent snowpack in many areas of the conterminous United States, with a resultant potential for increased isolation of island populations of wolverines

Wolverine Gene Flow Across a Narrow Climatic Niche

Wolverines (Guio guio) are one of the rarest carnivores in the contiguous United States. Effective population sizes in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, where most of the wolverines in the contiguous United States exist, were calculated to be 35 (credible limits, 28 52) suggesting low abundance. Landscape features that influence wolverine population substructure and gene flow are largely unknown. Recent work has identified strong associations between areas with persistent spring snow and wolverine presence and range. We tested whether a dispersal model in which wolverines prefer to disperse through areas characterized by persistent spring snow cover produced least-cost paths among all individuals that correlated with genetic distance among individuals. Models simulating large preferences for dispersing within areas characterized by persistent spring snow explained the data better than a model based on Euclidean distance. Partial Mantel tests separating Euclidean distance from spring snow-cover-based effects indicated that Euclidean distance was not significant in describing patterns of genetic distance. Because these models indicated that successful dispersal paths followed areas characterized by spring snow cover, we used these understandings to derive empirically based least-cost corridor maps in the U.S. Rocky Mountains. These corridor maps largely explain previously published population subdivision patterns based on mitochondrial DNA and indicate that natural colonization of the southern Rocky Mountains by wolverines will be difficult but not impossible

Climate Change Predicted to Shift Wolverine Distributions, Connectivity, and Dispersal Corridors

Boreal species sensitive to the timing and duration of snow cover are particularly vulnerable to global climate change. Recent work has shown a link between wolverine (Gulo gulo) habitat and persistent spring snow cover through 15 May, the approximate end of the wolverine’s reproductive denning period. We modeled the distribution of snow cover within the Columbia, Upper Missouri, and Upper Colorado River Basins using a downscaled ensemble climate model. The ensemble model was based on the arithmetic mean of 10 global climate models (GCMs) that best fit historical climate trends and patterns within these three basins. Snow cover was estimated from resulting downscaled temperature and precipitation patterns using a hydrologic model. We bracketed our ensemble model predictions by analyzing warm (miroc 3.2) and cool (pcm1) downscaled GCMs. Because Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)-based snow cover relationships were analyzed at much finer grain than downscaled GCM output, we conducted a second analysis based on MODIS-based snow cover that persisted through 29 May, simulating the onset of spring two weeks earlier in the year. Based on the downscaled ensemble model, 67% of predicted spring snow cover will persist within the study area through 2030–2059, and 37% through 2070–2099. Estimated snow cover for the ensemble model during the period 2070– 2099 was similar to persistent MODIS snow cover through 29 May. Losses in snow cover were greatest at the southern periphery of the study area (Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico, USA) and least in British Columbia, Canada. Contiguous areas of spring snow cover become smaller and more isolated over time, but large (.1000 km2) contiguous areas of wolverine habitat are predicted to persist within the study area throughout the 21st century for all projections. Areas that retain snow cover throughout the 21st century are British Columbia, north-central Washington, northwestern Montana, and the Greater Yellowstone Area. By the late 21st century, dispersal modeling indicates that habitat isolation at or above levels associated with genetic isolation of wolverine populations becomes widespread. Overall, we expect wolverine habitat to persist throughout the species range at least for the first half of the 21st century, but populations will likely become smaller and more isolated

Recovery of Wolverines in the Western United States: Recent Extirpation and Recolonization or Range Retraction and Expansion?

Wolverines were greatly reduced in number and possibly extirpated from the contiguous United States (U.S.) by the early 1900s. Wolverines currently occupy much of their historical range in Washington, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, but are absent from Utah and only single individuals are known to occur in California and Colorado. In response, the translocation of wolverines to California and Colorado is being considered. If wolverines are to be reintroduced, managers must identify appropriate source populations based on the genetic affinities of historical and modern wolverine populations. We amplified the mitochondrial control region of 13 museum specimens dating from the late 1800s to early 1900s and 209 wolverines from modern populations in the contiguous U.S. and Canada and combined results with previously published haplotypes. Collectively, these data indicated that historical wolverine populations in the contiguous U.S. were extirpated by the early 20th century, and that modern populations in the contiguous U.S. are likely the descendants of recent immigrants from the north. The Cali1 haplotype previously identified in California museum specimens was also common in historical samples from the southern Rocky Mountains, and likely evolved in isolation in the southern ice-free refugium that encompassed most of the contiguous U.S. during the last glaciation. However, when southern populations were extirpated, these matrilines were eliminated. Several of the other haplotypes found in historical specimens from the contiguous U.S. also occur in modern North American populations, and belong to a group of haplotypes that are associated with the rapid expansion of northern wolverine populations after the last glacial retreat. Modern wolverines in the contiguous U.S. are primarily haplotype A, which is the most common and widespread haplotype in Canada and Alaska. For the translocation of wolverines to California, Colorado, and other areas in the western U.S., potential source populations in the Canadian Rocky Mountains may provide the best mix of genetic diversity and appropriate learned behavior

Win-Win for Wind and Wildlife: A Vision to Facilitate Sustainable Development

Wind energy offers the potential to reduce carbon emissions while increasing energy independence and bolstering economic development. However, wind energy has a larger land footprint per Gigawatt (GW) than most other forms of energy production, making appropriate siting and mitigation particularly important. Species that require large unfragmented habitats and those known to avoid vertical structures are particularly at risk from wind development. Developing energy on disturbed lands rather than placing new developments within large and intact habitats would reduce cumulative impacts to wildlife. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that it will take 241 GW of terrestrial based wind development on approximately 5 million hectares to reach 20% electricity production for the U.S. by 2030. We estimate there are ∼7,700 GW of potential wind energy available across the U.S., with ∼3,500 GW on disturbed lands. In addition, a disturbance-focused development strategy would avert the development of ∼2.3 million hectares of undisturbed lands while generating the same amount of energy as development based solely on maximizing wind potential. Wind subsidies targeted at favoring low-impact developments and creating avoidance and mitigation requirements that raise the costs for projects impacting sensitive lands could improve public value for both wind energy and biodiversity conservation

Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome

The sequence of the human genome encodes the genetic instructions for human physiology, as well as rich information about human evolution. In 2001, the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium reported a draft sequence of the euchromatic portion of the human genome. Since then, the international collaboration has worked to convert this draft into a genome sequence with high accuracy and nearly complete coverage. Here, we report the result of this finishing process. The current genome sequence (Build 35) contains 2.85 billion nucleotides interrupted by only 341 gaps. It covers ∼99% of the euchromatic genome and is accurate to an error rate of ∼1 event per 100,000 bases. Many of the remaining euchromatic gaps are associated with segmental duplications and will require focused work with new methods. The near-complete sequence, the first for a vertebrate, greatly improves the precision of biological analyses of the human genome including studies of gene number, birth and death. Notably, the human enome seems to encode only 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The genome sequence reported here should serve as a firm foundation for biomedical research in the decades ahead

Determining crystal structures through crowdsourcing and coursework

We show here that computer game players can build high-quality crystal structures. Introduction of a new feature into the computer game Foldit allows players to build and real-space refine structures into electron density maps. To assess the usefulness of this feature, we held a crystallographic model-building competition between trained crystallographers, undergraduate students, Foldit players and automatic model-building algorithms. After removal of disordered residues, a team of Foldit players achieved the most accurate structure. Analysing the target protein of the competition, YPL067C, uncovered a new family of histidine triad proteins apparently involved in the prevention of amyloid toxicity. From this study, we conclude that crystallographers can utilize crowdsourcing to interpret electron density information and to produce structure solutions of the highest quality

Upper Pleistocene Gulo gulo (Linne, 1758) remains from the Srbsko Chlum-Komin hyena den cave in the Bohemian Karst, Czech Republic, with comparisons to contemporary wolverines

Wolverine bone material is described from the famous Upper Pleistocene cave Srbsko Chlum-Komin in the Bohemian Karst, Czech Republic, along with an overview of recently known Czech sites. The Gulo gulo Linne´ material was found in one of the largest Ice Age spotted-hyena dens in Europe. As a result of non-systematic excavations, the taphonomy is partly unclear. Lower-jaw remains indicate a minimum of three wolverines. Two of the mandibles are cracked, which is most likely the result of carnivore scavenging. The absence of juvenile G. gulo suggests possible importation of the wolverines by hyenas Crocuta crocuta spelaea Goldfuss

Stand- and landscape-scale selection of large trees by fishers in the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Idaho

The fisher (Pekania pennanti; formerly known as Martes pennanti) is a North American endemic mustelid with a geographic distribution that spans much of the boreal forests of North America. In the Northern Rocky Mountain (NRM) fishers have been the focus of Endangered Species Act (ESA) listing decisions. Habitat studies of West Coast fishers in California have consistently identified late-successional forests as important, providing direct implications for forest management and fisher conservation. In the NRM range very little is known about the habitat selection patterns of fishers relative to forest age and species composition, yet ESA petitioners have repeatedly listed habitat loss and destruction as the primary threat to fisher persistence. Between 2002 and 2006 we studied NRM fishers in the Clearwater sub-basin and eastern slope of the Bitterroot-Selway Ecosystemin Idaho and Montana.We used radio-telemetry locations fromcollared fishers to document fisher habitat use. We developed candidate models describing tree size, species composition, canopy closure, structural diversity, and topography to assess patterns of habitat selection relative to topographic and vegetative predictor variables measured at both stand and landscape scales. Support for these models was evaluated using Akaike Information Criteria. Fishers disproportionately used both stand sites and regional landscapes characterized by large diameter trees and avoided areas with ponderosa (a shade-intolerant species characteristic of xeric sites in the NRM) and lodgepole pine according to our best supportedmodel. These results are consistent with other studies in the western US and Canada where large trees were deemed important, although we show that this selection in the Rocky Mountains occurs at multiple scales. These results highlight the importance of late-successional forests, consistentwith a recent conservation strategy for fishers, and the importance of both stand- and landscape-level factors when directing forest management of fisher habitat in the US Rocky Mountains