Host hindrance to HIV-1 replication in monocytes and macrophages

Monocytes and macrophages are targets of HIV-1 infection and play critical roles in multiple aspects of viral pathogenesis. HIV-1 can replicate in blood monocytes, although only a minor proportion of circulating monocytes harbor viral DNA. Resident macrophages in tissues can be infected and function as viral reservoirs. However, their susceptibility to infection, and their capacity to actively replicate the virus, varies greatly depending on the tissue localization and cytokine environment. The susceptibility of monocytes to HIV-1 infection in vitro depends on their differentiation status. Monocytes are refractory to infection and become permissive upon differentiation into macrophages. In addition, the capacity of monocyte-derived macrophages to sustain viral replication varies between individuals. Host determinants regulate HIV-1 replication in monocytes and macrophages, limiting several steps of the viral life-cycle, from viral entry to virus release. Some host factors responsible for HIV-1 restriction are shared with T lymphocytes, but several anti-viral mechanisms are specific to either monocytes or macrophages. Whilst a number of these mechanisms have been identified in monocytes or in monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro, some of them have also been implicated in the regulation of HIV-1 infection in vivo, in particular in the brain and the lung where macrophages are the main cell type infected by HIV-1. This review focuses on cellular factors that have been reported to interfere with HIV-1 infection in monocytes and macrophages, and examines the evidences supporting their role in vivo, highlighting unique aspects of HIV-1 restriction in these two cell types

Gender differences in the use of cardiovascular interventions in HIV-positive persons; the D:A:D Study

Peer reviewe

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (4th edition)1.

In 2008, we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, this topic has received increasing attention, and many scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Thus, it is important to formulate on a regular basis updated guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Despite numerous reviews, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to evaluate autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we present a set of guidelines for investigators to select and interpret methods to examine autophagy and related processes, and for reviewers to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of reports that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a dogmatic set of rules, because the appropriateness of any assay largely depends on the question being asked and the system being used. Moreover, no individual assay is perfect for every situation, calling for the use of multiple techniques to properly monitor autophagy in each experimental setting. Finally, several core components of the autophagy machinery have been implicated in distinct autophagic processes (canonical and noncanonical autophagy), implying that genetic approaches to block autophagy should rely on targeting two or more autophagy-related genes that ideally participate in distinct steps of the pathway. Along similar lines, because multiple proteins involved in autophagy also regulate other cellular pathways including apoptosis, not all of them can be used as a specific marker for bona fide autophagic responses. Here, we critically discuss current methods of assessing autophagy and the information they can, or cannot, provide. Our ultimate goal is to encourage intellectual and technical innovation in the field

Italian Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents and the Diagnostic-clinical Management of HIV-1 Infected Persons

112The aim of this version is simply to render certain concepts expressed in the document more usable, by specific circulation in booklet form, inviting the reader to refer to the extended version for further information and full details. It was decided not to discuss in toto in this version certain fundamental parts of the extended versions such as the populations requiring special attention (elderly, women, immigrants, children), the conditions requiring special attention (drug and/or alcohol addiction, detention) or the situations requiring special attention (transplants). For all these populations, conditions or situations, it should be referred at the full text version of the Guidelines. Lastly, it was decided to refer the reader to the extended version for all bibliographic citations, except for the essential references cited at the end of this versionopenAntinori A; Marcotullio S; Ammassari A; Andreoni M; Angarano G; Carosi G; Cinque P; D' Arminio Monforte A; Di Perri G; Ensoli B; Ferrazzi E; Galli M; Mastroianni C; Matteelli A; Mazzotta F; Moroni M; Pal G; Puoti M; Puro V; Rizzardini G; Sagnelli E; Suter F; Vella S; Lazzarin A. Collaborators: Ensoli B; Moroni M; Lazzarin A; Sagnelli E; Antinori A; Carosi G; Marcotullio S; Mazzotta F; Vella S; Ammassari A; Antonucci G; Andreoni M; Angarano G; Armignacco O; Babudieri S; Baldelli F; Bini T; Bonfanti P; Bonora S; Borderi M; Bruno R; Bucciardini R; Castagna A; Cattelan AM; Cauda R; Cerioli A; Chirianni A; Cingolani A; Cinque P; D' Arminio Monforte A; De Carli G; De Luca A; Di Perri G; Di Pietro M; El Hamad I; Errico M; Ferrazzi E; Floridia M; Gabrielli E; Galli M; Giaquinto C; Girardi E; Gori A; Grossi P; Guaraldi G; Liuzzi G; Lo Caputo S; Maggiolo F; Malena M; Maserati R; Mastroianni C; Matteelli A; Morrone A; Murri R; Mussini C; Nasta P; Oldrini M; Oleari F; Orlando G; Pal G; Pempinello R; Perno CF; Prestileo T; Pompa MG; Puoti M; Puro V; Rancilio L; Rasi G; Rizzardini G; Savasi VM; Signorini L; Sighinolfi L; Sighinolfi M; Stagnitta M; Starace F; Starnini G; Sterrantino G; Suter F; Tamburini E; Tambussi G; Tavio M; Torti C; Tozzi V; Trotta MP; Vaccher E; Vigan A; Visintini R; Vullo V; Zuccotti GVAntinori, A; Marcotullio, S; Ammassari, A; Andreoni, M; Angarano, G; Carosi, G; Cinque, P; D' Arminio Monforte, A; Di Perri, G; Ensoli, B; Ferrazzi, E; Galli, M; Mastroianni, C; Matteelli, A; Mazzotta, F; Moroni, M; Pal, G; Puoti, M; Puro, V; Rizzardini, G; Sagnelli, E; Suter, F; Vella, S; Lazzarin A., Collaborators: Ensoli B; Moroni, M; Lazzarin, A; Sagnelli, E; Antinori, A; Carosi, G; Marcotullio, S; Mazzotta, F; Vella, S; Ammassari, A; Antonucci, G; Andreoni, M; Angarano, G; Armignacco, O; Babudieri, S; Baldelli, F; Bini, T; Bonfanti, P; Bonora, S; Borderi, M; Bruno, R; Bucciardini, R; Castagna, A; Cattelan, Am; Cauda, R; Cerioli, A; Chirianni, A; Cingolani, A; Cinque, P; D' Arminio Monforte, A; De Carli, G; De Luca, A; Di Perri, G; Di Pietro, M; El Hamad, I; Errico, M; Ferrazzi, E; Floridia, M; Gabrielli, E; Galli, M; Giaquinto, C; Girardi, E; Gori, A; Grossi, PAOLO ANTONIO; Guaraldi, G; Liuzzi, G; Lo Caputo, S; Maggiolo, F; Malena, M; Maserati, R; Mastroianni, C; Matteelli, A; Morrone, A; Murri, R; Mussini, C; Nasta, P; Oldrini, M; Oleari, F; Orlando, G; Pal, G; Pempinello, R; Perno, Cf; Prestileo, T; Pompa, Mg; Puoti, M; Puro, V; Rancilio, L; Rasi, G; Rizzardini, G; Savasi, Vm; Signorini, L; Sighinolfi, L; Sighinolfi, M; Stagnitta, M; Starace, F; Starnini, G; Sterrantino, G; Suter, F; Tamburini, E; Tambussi, G; Tavio, M; Torti, C; Tozzi, V; Trotta, Mp; Vaccher, E; Vigan, A; Visintini, R; Vullo, V; Zuccotti, G