The Long Reach of Divorce: Divorce and Child Well-Being across Three Generations

We used data from the study of Marital Instability Over the Life Course to examine links between divorce in the grandparent generation and outcomes in the grandchild generation (N = 691). Divorce in the first generation (G1) was associated with lower education, more marital discord, weaker ties with mothers, and weaker ties with fathers in the third generation (G3). These associations were mediated by family characteristics in the middle generation (G2), including lower education, more marital discord, more divorce, and greater tension in early parent- child relationships. In supplementary analyses, we found no evidence that the estimated effects of divorce differed by offspring gender or became weaker over time. Our results suggest that divorce has consequences for subsequent generations, including individuals who were not yet born at the time of the original divorce

Escalating risk and the moderating effect of resistance to peer influence on the P200 and feedback-related negativity

Young people frequently socialize together in contexts that encourage risky decision making, pointing to a need for research into how susceptibility to peer influence is related to individual differences in the neural processing of decisions during sequentially escalating risk. We applied a novel analytic approach to analyze EEG activity from college-going students while they completed the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), a well-established risk-taking propensity assessment. By modeling outcome-processing-related changes in the P200 and feedback-related negativity (FRN) sequentially within each BART trial as a function of pump order as an index of increasing risk, our results suggest that analyzing the BART in a progressive fashion may provide valuable new insights into the temporal neurophysiological dynamics of risk taking. Our results showed that a P200, localized to the left caudate nucleus, and an FRN, localized to the left dACC, were positively correlated with the level of risk taking and reward. Furthermore, consistent with our hypotheses, the rate of change in the FRN was higher among college students with greater self-reported resistance to peer influence

Economic Hardship, Parents’ Depression, and Relationship Distress among Couples With Young Children

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (N = 1,492 couples), we assessed stress, health selection, and couple-crossover hypotheses by examining (1) the bidirectional association between economic hardship and depressive symptoms one, three, and five years after the birth of a child; (2) the association between economic hardship and depressive symptoms on relationship distress for both parents; and (3) whether the associations vary by marital status. The results suggest a pernicious cycle for mothers after the birth of the child. Economic hardship increases depression, but maternal depression also increases economic hardship. These reinforcing mechanisms increase both mothers’ and fathers’ relationship distress. Taken together, policies aimed at strengthening couples’ relationships should work in tandem with economic and mental health policies to reach optimal outcomes for couples with a young child. Effect patterns were generally consistent between married and cohabiting couples, with some variation in levels of statistical significance

Tick–tock goes the croc: a high-density EEG study of risk-reactivity and binge-drinking

Links between individual differences in risk processing and high-risk behaviors such as binge-drinking have long been the focus of active research. However, investigations in this area almost exclusively utilize decision-making focused paradigms. This emphasis makes it difficult to assess links between risk behaviors and raw risk reactivity independent of decision and feedback processes. A deeper understanding of this association has the potential to shed light on the role of risk reactivity in high-risk behavior susceptibility. To contribute toward this aim, this study utilizes a popular risk-taking game, the crocodile dentist, to assess links between individual differences in decision-free risk-reactivity and reported binge-drinking frequency levels. In this task, participants engage in a series of decision-free escalating risk responses. Risk-reactivity was assessed by measuring late positive potential responses toward risk-taking action initiation cues using high-density 256-Channel EEG. The results indicate that, after controlling for overall alcohol consumption frequency, higher rates of reported binge-drinking are associated with both increased general risk-taking responsivity and increased risk-reactivity escalation as a function of risk level. These findings highlight intriguing links between risk reactivity and binge-drinking frequency, making key contributions in the areas of risk-taking and affective science

Tribal vs. Public Schools: Perceived Discrimination and School Adjustment among Indigenous Children from Early to Mid- Adolescence

The purpose of this study is to assess the differential effects of perceived discrimination by type of school on positive school adjustment among Indigenous children during late elementary and early middle school years. The analysis utilizes a sample of 654 Indigenous children from four reservations in the Northern Midwest and four Canadian First Nation reserves. Multiple group linear growth modeling within a structural equation framework is employed to investigate the moderating effects of school type on the relationship between discrimination and positive school adjustment. Results show that students in all school types score relatively high on positive school adjustment at time one (ages 10-12). However, in contrast to students in tribal schools for whom positive school adjustment remains stable, those attending public schools and those moving between school types show a decline in school adjustment over time. Furthermore, the negative effects of discrimination on positive school adjustment are greater for those attending public schools and those moving between schools. Possible reasons for this finding and potential explanations for why tribal schools may provide protection from the negative effects of discrimination are discussed

The impact of social exclusion on anticipatory attentional processing

The importance of understanding how we anticipate and prepare for social rejection is underscored by the mental and physical toll of continual social vigilance. In this study, we investigate the impact of social rejection on anticipatory attentional processes using the well-known Cyberball task, a paradigm in which participants engage in a game of catch with virtual avatars who after an initial period of fair-play (inclusion condition) then exclude the participant from the game (exclusion condition). The degree of anticipatory attention allocated by subjects towards the avatars was assessed by measuring P3b responses towards the avatars’ preparatory actions (i.e. the phase preceding their exclusionary actions) using high density EEG. The results of the study show that relative to the inclusion, participants exhibit elevated levels of anticipatory attentional allocation towards the avatars during the exclusion block. This shift was however significantly moderated by participants’ self-reported cognitive regulation tendencies. Participants with higher levels of self-reported cognitive reappraisal tendencies showed larger anticipatory P3b increases from the inclusion to exclusion block relative to participants with reduced levels of reappraisal tendencies. These results highlight the impact of social exclusion on anticipatory neural processing and the moderating role of cognitive reappraisal on these effects

Tribal vs. Public Schools: Perceived Discrimination and School Adjustment among Indigenous Children from Early to Mid- Adolescence

The purpose of this study is to assess the differential effects of perceived discrimination by type of school on positive school adjustment among Indigenous children during late elementary and early middle school years. The analysis utilizes a sample of 654 Indigenous children from four reservations in the Northern Midwest and four Canadian First Nation reserves. Multiple group linear growth modeling within a structural equation framework is employed to investigate the moderating effects of school type on the relationship between discrimination and positive school adjustment. Results show that students in all school types score relatively high on positive school adjustment at time one (ages 10-12). However, in contrast to students in tribal schools for whom positive school adjustment remains stable, those attending public schools and those moving between school types show a decline in school adjustment over time. Furthermore, the negative effects of discrimination on positive school adjustment are greater for those attending public schools and those moving between schools. Possible reasons for this finding and potential explanations for why tribal schools may provide protection from the negative effects of discrimination are discussed

Population Neuroscience Approaches to Minority Discrimination and Health

Alleah Bouley, Alex Johnson, Bethany Stoutamire, Elizabeth Straley UCARE Abstract: Academic Year 2015-2016 Advisor: Dr. Jacob Cheadle Population Neuroscience Approaches to Minority Discrimination and Health STATEMENT OF PURPOSE The primary purpose of our research is to explore the effects of social exclusion and discrimination on the mental and physical health and wellbeing of sexual minorities (gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals). Addressing this complicated issue is a team effort, so participation in this project will provide a novel set of research experiences for participating undergraduates. RESEARCH QUESTIONS Our UCARE research will address two important questions. The first question we will address is how is discrimination associated with self-reported mental health and health-related behaviors? The second question we plan to answer with our research is to what extent do prior experiences of discrimination predict differences in neural processing of social exclusion and rejection (such as differences in neurophysiological processing components and activation of brain regions in response to exclusionary stimuli), and do measures of the neural processing of social exclusion correlate with mental and physical health outcomes? IMPORTANCE Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals suffer higher mental health disorder prevalences, such as depression, substance use and abuse, and suicidality, compared to heterosexuals (Burgard, Cochran, and Mays 2005; Burton et al. 2013, 2013; Diaz et al. 2001; Hatzenbuehler 2009; King et al. 2008; Marshal et al. 2008; Meyer 2003). With recent estimates indicating that more than 8 million American adults identify as LGB, identifying mechanisms that may ameliorate negative outcomes in this population is imperative (Gates 2011). Researchers have conceptualized the cause for these higher rates as a symptom of stress (Hatzenbuehler, Nolen-Hoeksema, and Erickson 2008). In addition to personal experiences of social exclusion and rejection from identity-based discrimination, which can be based on any number of personal characteristics, social stress leads to negative mental and physical health outcomes in individuals (Carter, Mollen, and Smith 2014; Meyer 2003; Pearlin et al. 2005). The additional stigma that members of the LGBTQA community has led to gay men and lesbians to suffer from more mental health issues such as substance abuse and suicide in a hypothesis that can be described as minority stress (Meyer 2003). METHODS We will begin by recruiting lesbian, gay, and bisexual students on UNL’s campus, using a respondent-driven sampling method (Heckathorn 2007). We will work as a team to manage “office hours” for data collection of both survey and experimental behavioral data. During these office hours, research assistants will guide participating students through a survey that will be used to measure the consequences of discrimination for LGB individuals. Additional sociodemographic background characteristics and a short behavioral task will also be assessed. Running these assessments on multiple participants is a collective, group activity that will provide unique training in respondent driven sampling for participating research undergraduates. A random subsample will then be drawn from the survey respondents for participation in electroencephalography (EEG) experiments at the Center for Brain, Biology and Behavior. During these tasks participants will engage in validated social exclusion tasks to measure neurophysiological responses to social exclusion. EEG measures and records electrical signals given off by the brain through the scalp which are then translated as waves onto a computer for future analysis. EEG is conducted using a mesh cap of electrodes soaked in saline solution that a participant will be wearing. We will be using the program OpenSesame to present stimuli. The first exclusion task is called Cyberball. The participant will virtually pass a ball with two other avatars but after a set time, the avatars will no longer pass the ball to the participant’s avatar, thus excluding him/her. Participants will be asked about social pain and attribution of exclusion after each round of simulations. Two undergraduate research assistants will participate in each data collection, providing further novel research experiences as part of a collaborative, team effort to addressing the central research aims. ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES While we have not yet learned to analyze EEG data, we have been collecting data and administering surveys and behavioral tasks with Dr. Cheadle and his graduate assistants, Beth Straley and John Kiat, for the past year. We will be working together to train newly recruited undergraduate research assistants in EEG data collection methods based on the best practices we have learned, continuing to refine our technique, while working in pairs to ensure collection of good data. We are IRB-approved to collect and handle data, and hope to learn analysis techniques as part of the UCARE project in the coming year. These techniques will include segmentation, artifact detection and correction, and preliminary statistical analyses to answer our research questions. For instance, we plan to learn the basics of Principal Component Analysis to find brain activation patterns that reflect processing of exclusion, and to see if there are differences in these patterns for respondents depending on the levels of discrimination that they have experienced in everyday life. We hope to accomplish the following benchmarks, as well as any other additional aspects of the research that will aid us in understanding neural processing. BENCHMARKS: Review IRB protocols Facilitate training in EEG data collection for new UGRAs Learn about recruiting a research sample Recruit and manage a research sample Collect EEG and behavioral data Help with preliminary data analysis Organize findings into a written format Create a poster and present the research REFERENCES Burgard, S. A., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2005). Alcohol and tobacco use patterns among heterosexually and homosexually experienced California women. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(1), 61–70. Burton, C. M., Marshal, M. P., Chisolm, D. J., Sucato, G. S., & Friedman, M. S. (2013). Sexual Minority-Related Victimization as a Mediator of Mental Health Disparities in Sexual Minority Youth: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(3), 394–402. Carter, L. W., Mollen, D., & Smith, N. G. (2014). Locus of control, minority stress, and psychological distress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1), 169–175. Diaz, R. M., Ayala, G., Bein, E., Henne, J., & Marin, B. V. (2001). The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men: findings from 3 US cities. American Journal of Public Health, 91(6), 927–32. Gates, G. J. (2011). How many people are lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender?. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/09h684x2.pdf Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135(5), 707–730. Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Erickson, S. J. (2008). Minority stress predictors of HIV risk behavior, substance use, and depressive symptoms: Results from a prospective study of bereaved gay men. Health Psychology, 27(4), 455–462. Heckathorn, Douglas D. 2007. “Extensions Of Respondent-Driven Sampling: Analyzing Continuous Variables And Controlling For Differential Recruitment.” Sociological Methodology 37(1):151–207. King, M., Semlyen, J., Tai, S., Killaspy, H., Osborn, D., Popelyuk, D., & Nazareth, I. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 70. Marshal, M. P., Friedman, M. S., Stall, R., King, K. M., Miles, J., Gold, M. A., … Morse, J. Q. (2008). Sexual orientation and adolescent substance use: a meta-analysis and methodological review. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 103(4), 546–556. Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, Social Stress, and Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Populations. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 3–26. Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, Health, and the Life Course: Some Conceptual Perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2), 205–219

Adolescent Loneliness and Health in Early Adulthood

The health consequence of loneliness in the early life course is an understudied topic in the sociological literature. Using data from Waves 1–3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine pre-disease pathways in the relationship between adolescent loneliness and early adult health. Our results indicate that loneliness during adolescence is associated with diagnosed depression, poorer adult self-rated health, and metabolic risk factors related to cardiovascular disease. High depressive symptoms and parent support are important pathways through which the health consequences of loneliness are exacerbated or offset. There is also evidence that lonely youth remain at higher risk for experiencing adult depression and poor self-rated health even in the presence of equivalent levels of parental support relative to non-lonely adolescents. Furthermore, lonely adolescent females are more vulnerable to reporting poor adult self-rated health and being overweight or obese in adulthood. In sum, our study demonstrates the importance of adolescent loneliness for elevating the risk of poor health outcomes in adulthood

Adolescent Loneliness and Health in Early Adulthood

The health consequence of loneliness in the early life course is an understudied topic in the sociological literature. Using data from Waves 1–3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we examine pre-disease pathways in the relationship between adolescent loneliness and early adult health. Our results indicate that loneliness during adolescence is associated with diagnosed depression, poorer adult self-rated health, and metabolic risk factors related to cardiovascular disease. High depressive symptoms and parent support are important pathways through which the health consequences of loneliness are exacerbated or offset. There is also evidence that lonely youth remain at higher risk for experiencing adult depression and poor self-rated health even in the presence of equivalent levels of parental support relative to non-lonely adolescents. Furthermore, lonely adolescent females are more vulnerable to reporting poor adult self-rated health and being overweight or obese in adulthood. In sum, our study demonstrates the importance of adolescent loneliness for elevating the risk of poor health outcomes in adulthood