85 research outputs found

    Modified poly(lactic acid) sheets manufactured by one-step reactive extrusion-calendering : thermal, rheological, mechanical and fracture behaviours

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    The purpose of this PhD thesis was to investigate the sensitivity of the rheological, thermal, mechanical and fracture behaviours on the topological changes induced in two commercial PLA grades. PLA 2002D and PLA 4032D (NatureWorks, Belgium) with a D-lactide content of 4.25 and 2 %, respectively, were reactively modified in the melt with predetermined concentrations of a multi-functional epoxide agent. In a preliminary study, the evolution of the coupling reactions was followed by monitoring the torque versus time in an internal mixer device. Once all parameters were optimized, reactive extrusion was performed in a co-rotating twin screw extruder with a screw diameter of 25 mm (L/D=36). The main emphasize of this work was on the production of modified PLA sheets (thickness: 1 mm, width: 100 mm) through a one-step reactive extrusion-calendering process in pilot plant. Under similar processing conditions, the higher the D-lactide content, the lower was the reactivity of the PLA type towards the reactive agent. During processing, a competition between degradation and chain extension/branching reactions took place which led to a stabilization of the melt properties and an increase in the molecular weight (MW). Classical spectroscopic (FT-IR, NMR) and chromatographic (SEC-multiple detectors) methods failed to highlight structural differences between unmodified (PLA) and modified (PLA-REX) samples. On the other hand, rheological properties were significantly modified and suggest the formation of non-uniform branched structures, which include sparsely long chain branching (LCB) macromolecules. Both the melt elasticity and the melt response time increased. Bi-modal molecular weight distribution (MWD) spectra were inferred from the complex viscosity functions of PLA-REX samples which exhibit a double curvature in the shear-thinning regime. Based on these MWDs, a procedure is suggested to quantitatively estimate the amount of modified PLA chains from solely melt measurements. Thus, rheological measurements turned out to be a valuable tool for the detection and the quantification of small contents of topological changes in the work at hand. Thermal properties were slightly modified with the modification of the chain architecture. Upon constant heating, the maximum rate of conversion declined for PLA-REX samples; thus leading to a decrease in the degree of cold-crystallization. Thermal fractionation, according to the successive self-nucleation and annealing methodology, suggests a modification of the length distribution of crystallisable PLLA chain segments. In the present work, These trends mainly accounted from the increase in MW coupled with the enhanced concentration of defects into the polymeric chains (e.g. branch point). In the Tg region, the rate of enthalpy relaxation was found to decrease with increasing the entanglement network density under controlled aging periods at 30 °C. For a given thermal history, PLA-REX yielded comparative mechanical properties as those of PLA samples under uniaxial tensile loading. This is an important finding, because rheological properties (i.e. melt elasticity, viscosity, etc) may be controlled independently of the mechanical properties according to both the processing conditions and the concentrations of reactive agent used in the current study. While de-aged samples behaved in a ductile manner, aged samples were brittle. This behaviour was attributed to the effect of the physical aging process on the mechanical behaviour which commonly promotes the ductile/brittle transition. Regarding de-aged samples, the essential work of fracture analysis revealed no changes in the typical fracture parameters. Regarding aged PLA-REX samples, the energy consumed up to the onset of crack propagation was found to decrease due to an apparently decreased network extensibility, promoting a premature craze-crack transition.El propósito de esta tesis doctoral ha sido investigar los efectos inducidos por cambios topológicos en dos grados comerciales de PLA en sus comportamientos reológicos, térmicos, mecánicos y a fractura. PLA 2002D y PLA 4032D con un contenido de enantiomero D igual a 4,25 y 2%, respectivamente, fueron modificados a través de un proceso de extrusión reactiva con concentraciones predeterminadas de un agente multifuncional con grupos epóxidos reactivos. En un estudio preliminar, la evolución de las reacciones de acoplamiento fue registrada a través del seguimiento del par de fuerzas en función del tiempo de mezcla en un dispositivo de mezclador interno. Una vez todos los parámetros optimizados, el proceso de extrusión reactiva se realizó en una extrusora doble husillo co-giratorio con un diámetro de usillo igual a 25 mm (L/D = 36). El principal objetivo de este trabajo, fue la producción de láminas de PLA modificadas estructuralmente a través de un proceso simultáneo de extrusión reactiva-calandrado en un solo paso. Bajo condiciones similares de procesamiento, cuando el contenido de enantiomero D sea mayor, la reactividad del tipo de PLA será menor hacia el agente reactivo. Durante el procesamiento, una competición entre degradación, extensión de cadenas y reacciones de ramificación conlleva a una estabilización de las propiedades del fundido y a un aumento en el peso molecular. Mientras que los métodos clásicos de espectroscopia (FT-IR, NMR) y cromatográfico (SEC-múltiples detectores) fallaron en resaltar cambios arquitecturales, las propiedades reológicas confirmaron la formación de estructuras ramificadas no uniformes, que incluyen escasamente ramificaciones largas. Tanto la elasticidad como la respuesta del fundido en el tiempo aumentaron. Los espectros de distribución de peso moleculares (MWD) bi-modal se infirieron de las funciones de viscosidad compleja de las muestras de PLA-REX las cuales presentan una doble curvatura en el régimen pseudo-plástico. En base a estos MWD, se sugiere un procedimiento, para estimar cuantitativamente la cantidad de cadenas de PLA modificadas a partir de mediciones realizadas únicamente en el fundido. Las propiedades térmicas se vieron ligeramente alteradas con la modificación de la arquitectura molecular. Tras un calentamiento constante, la tasa máxima de conversión para las muestras de PLA-REX se redujo; lo que conlleva a una disminución en el grado de cristalización en frío alcanzable. El fraccionamiento térmico, de acuerdo con la metodología de auto-nucleación y recocidos sucesivos (SSA), sugiere una modificación de la distribución de la longitud de los segmentos cristalizables de cadena de PLLA. En la región de Tg, los resultados sugieren una reducción de la cinética de envejecimiento físico con un aumento en la densidad de enredos físicos bajo períodos de envejecimiento controlados a 30 ° C. Para una historia térmica dada, las muestras de PLA-REX exhiben propiedades mecánicas comparativas a las muestras de PLA. Este podría ser considerado un hallazgo importante, puesto que las propiedades reológicas (elasticidad del fundido, viscosidad, etc.) pueden ser controladas de forma independiente a las propiedades mecánicas de acuerdo a las condiciones de procesamiento y a las concentraciones de agente reactivo utilizadas en el estudio actual. Mientras que las muestras rejuvenecidas presentaron un comportamiento dúctil, las muestras envejecidas resultaron frágiles. Este comportamiento, se atribuyó al efecto del proceso de envejecimiento físico en el comportamiento mecánico que promueve la transición dúctil/frágil. En las muestras rejuvenecidas, el trabajo esencial de fractura no reveló ningún cambio en los parámetros típicos de fractura. Por otra parte las muestras envejecidas de PLA-REX, la energía consumida hasta el inicio de la propagación de la grieta disminuyó debido a una disminución de la extensibilidad aparentemente de la red molecular, promoviendo una transición prematuraPostprint (published version

    Evaluacion del comportamiento térmico, mecanico y a la fractura de laminas de mezclas de R-PET/poliolefinas

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    Doble titulacióEl objetivo de este proyecto ha sido la preparación y caracterización térmica, mecánica y a fractura de mezclas de Poli(Etilén tereftalato) reciclado (R-PET) con un 10 % en peso de dos tipos de Polietilenos (alta (HDPE) y baja (LDPE) densidad) empleando como agente compatibilizante un copolimero etileno-g-anhídrido maléico (EGMA) comercial. Las mezclas fueron preparadas en una extrusora doble-husillo. Tras el granceado y secado exhaustivo de la mezclas, fueron obtenidas placas (100 x 100 x 2 mm3) y probetas halerio (espesor nominal 4 mm) mediante moldeo por inyección. La inspección morfológica realizada mediante MEB confirman el carácter bifásico del sistema: partículas esféricas de poliolefina en una matriz continúa de PET. Igualmente se pudo establecer que tanto las probetas como las placas muestran un gradiente morfológico caracterizado por una piel con un tamaño de partícula mucho más pequeño que el núcleo. Este gradiente es mucho más marcado en las probetas respecto a las láminas. En general, el tamaño de partícula en las mezclas con LDPE fue menor a las de las mezclas con HDPE. También se detectan evidencias de baja adhesión entre las fases. Mediante DSC se pudo establecer que el copolimero empleado parece no ejercer un efecto “miscibilizante” entre las fases ya que no se presenta ninguna modificación en las temperaturas características de transición (Tg y Tm), ni en lo relativo a la máxima capacidad de cristalización del PET. Es de destacar que debido al solapamiento de las señales de fusión del LDPE y del HDPE con la Tg y cristalización en frío del PET, mediante esta técnica ha sido complicado determinar posibles cambios en esta última transición. Realizando ensayos de DMTA se ha podido establecer que la fase poliolefínica parece ejercer un efecto nucleante en la cristalización en frío del PET. Tanto el PET como las mezclas mostraron un comportamiento a tracción frágil. No obstante, tras realizar un tratamiento térmico, se logró recuperar la ductilidad característica del PET y la mezcla con LDPE, siendo imposible para el caso de la mezcla HDPE. Este hecho hace pensar que tras el proceso de inyección el nivel de tensiones residuales es elevado. Para el caso de la mezcla con HDPE, aún pudiendo existir dichas tensiones residuales, la situación morfológica generada, aunada a la baja adhesión, limitan dicha recuperación. Los parámetros mecánicos obtenidos muestran que el empleo de LDPE como fase poliolefínica disminuye tanto el módulo de elasticidad (E) como la tensión a la cedencia ((sigma)y). El análisis del comportamiento a fractura usando la técnica del Trabajo Esencial de Fractura (EWF) establece que la adición de fase poliolefínica disminuye de forma apreciable el término esencial (we), ya que las partículas de fase dispersa poco adheridas actúan como defectos internos. No obstante la misma situación hace que el término no esencial ((beta)wp) permanezca sin variación respecto al de PET, ya que la cavitación de estas partículas favorecen la cedencia por cizalladura de la matríz y su posterior fibrilación, fenómenos disipadores de energía

    Multifunctional enzymatically generated hydrogels for chronic wound application

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    The healing of chronic wounds requires intensive medical intervention at huge healthcare costs. Dressing materials should consider the multifactorial nature of these wounds comprising deleterious proteolytic and oxidative enzymes and high bacterial load. In this work, multifunctional hydrogels for chronic wound application were produced by enzymatic cross- linking of thiolated chitosan and gallic acid. The hydrogels combine several beneficial to wound healing properties, controlling the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activities, oxidative stress, and bacterial contamination. In vitro studies revealed above 90% antioxidant activity, and MPO and collagenase inhibition by up to 98 and 23%, respectively. Ex vivo studies with venous leg ulcer exudates confirmed the inhibitory capacity of the dressings against MPO and MMPs. Additionally, the hydrogels reduced the population of the most frequently encountered in nonhealing wounds bacterial strains. The stable at physiological conditions and resistant to lysozyme degradation hydrogels showed high biocompatibility with human skin fibroblastsPeer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

    Effect of the viscosity ratio on the PLA/PA10.10 bioblends morphology and mechanical properties

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    PLA bio-blends with a predominantly biosourced PA10.10 in the composition range 10-50wt.% were prepared by melt blending in order to overcome the advanced brittleness of PLA. Due to the inherent immiscibility of the blends, 30 wt.% of PA was needed to achieve a brittle-to-ductile transition and a co-continuous morphology was predicted at 58 wt.% of PA. The initial enhancement of the PLA rheological behaviour through the environmentally friendly reactive extrusion process yielded a finer and more homogeneous microstructure and hence enhanced the mechanical properties of the bio-blends at much lower PA contents. The brittle-to-ductile transition could be achieved with only 10 wt.% and co-continuity was observed already at 44 wt.% of PA. Results indicate the significant potential of modifying PLA flow behaviour as a promising green manufacturing method toward expanding PLA-based bio-blends applications.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

    PLA/PA bio-blends: induced morphology by extrusion

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    The effect of processing conditions on the final morphology of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA) with bio-based Polyamide 10.10 (PA) 70/30 blends is analyzed in this paper. Two types of PLA were used: Commercial (neat PLA) and a rheologically modified PLA (PLAREx), with higher melt elasticity produced by reactive extrusion. To evaluate the ability of in situ micro-fibrillation (µf) of PA phase during blend compounding by twin-screw extrusion, two processing parameters were varied: (i) Screw speed rotation (rpm); and (ii) take-up velocity, to induce a hot stretching with different Draw Ratios (DR). The potential ability of PA-µf in both bio-blends was evaluated by the viscosity (p) and elasticity (k’) ratios determined from the rheological tests of pristine polymers. When PLAREx was used, the requirements for PA-µf was fulfilled in the shear rate range observed at the extrusion die. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations revealed that, unlike neat PLA, PLAREx promoted PA-µf without hot stretching and the aspect ratio increased as DR increased. For neat PLA-based blends, PA-µf was promoted during the hot stretching stage. DMTA analysis revealed that the use of PLAREx PLAREx resulted in a better mechanical performance in the rubbery region (T > Tg PLA-phase) due to the PA-µf morphology obtained.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

    The influence of the clay particles on the mechanical properties and fracture behavior of PLA/o-MMT composite films

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    In this study, calendered films of polylactic acid/organo-montmorillonite clay (PLA/o-MMT) were prepared and the influence of the clay particles' morphology on the mechanical properties and fracture behavior was evaluated. An image analysis was performed using transmission electron microscopy micrographs to complete the morphological study. The micrographs were taken from ultramicrotomic samples corresponding to the melting flow (MD) and transverse direction (TD) of the films. The micrographs revealed intercalated particles and tactoids, which were in accordance with the wide angle X-ray scattering patterns. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed in the MD and TD directions, finding a slight anisotropy in the films, which was associated with a low level of polymer chain orientation due to the calender processing. The fracture behavior was also evaluated in the MD and TD directions using deeply double-edge-notched tension (DDENT) specimens. The mechanical and fracture tests were evaluated on aging (brittle) and deaging (ductile) films by applying a thermal treatment that consisted of heating above the glass transition temperature of the PLA and subsequent quenching. For ductile PLA composite films, the reinforcement effect promoted by the clay particles was not so evident.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author’s final draft

    Extruded-calendered sheets of fully recycled pp/opaque pet blends: Mechanical and fracture behaviour

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    This work presents the experimental results of the mechanical and fracture behaviour of three polymeric blends prepared from two recycled plastics, namely polypropylene and opaque poly (ethylene terephthalate), where the second one acted as a reinforcement phase. The raw materials were two commercial degrees of recycled post-consumer waste, i.e., rPP and rPET-O. Sheets were manufactured by a semi-industrial extrusion-calendering process. The mechanical and fracture behaviours of manufactured sheets were analyzed via tensile tests and the essential work of fracture approach. SEM micrographics of cryofractured sheets revelated the development of in situ rPP/rPET-O microfibrillar composites when 30 wt.% of rPET-O was added. It was observed that the yield stress was not affected with the addition of rPET-O. However, the microfibrillar structure increased the Young’s modulus by more than a third compared with rPP, fulfilling the longitudinal value predicted by the additive rule of mixtures. Regarding the EWF analysis, the resistance to crack initiation was highly influenced by the resistance to its propagation owing to morphology-related instabilities during tearing. To analyze the initiation stage, a partition energy method was successfully applied by splitting the total work of fracture into two specific energetic contributions, namely initiation and propagation. The results revelated that the specific essential initiation-related work of fracture was mainly affected by rPET-O phase. Remarkably, its value was significantly improved by a factor of three with the microfibrillar structure of rPET-O phase. The results allowed the exploration of the potential ability of manufacturing in situ MFCs without a “precursor” morphology, providing an economical way to promote the recycling rate of PET-O, as this material is being discarded from current recycling processes.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

    Multivariate identification of extruded PLA samples from the infrared spectrum

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    This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Journal of materials science. The final authenticated version is available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04091-6Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer that is presented as a good alternative to petroleum-derived plastics. Some of the major drawbacks of this material are its lack of thermal stability and rapid degradation in large-scale production; thus, special care must be taken during processing. To improve their properties, a reactive extrusion with a multi-epoxy chain extender (SAmfE) has been performed at pilot plant scale. The induced topological modifications produce a mixture of several types of non-uniform structures. Conventional chromatographic (SEC—static light scattering) or spectroscopic (nuclear magnetic resonance) techniques usually fail in characterizing non-uniform structures. A method for the classification of modified PLA samples based on a multivariate treatment of the spectral data obtained by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, jointly with the application of feature extraction and classification algorithms, was applied in this study. The results of this work show the potential of the methodology proposed to improve quality control during manufacturing.Peer ReviewedPostprint (author's final draft

    EcoBlends'up:

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    En ciertas mezclas de polímeros una morfología microfibrilar de la fase dispersa debidamente orientada durante la etapa de procesamiento, puede generar un efecto reforzante aumentando la tenacidad a la fractura, sobre todo en la etapa de propagación de grieta. Este tipo de materiales se denominan “compuestos microfibrilados in situ” (MFCs). Su obtención viene condicionada por las propiedades reológicos de la mezcla y los parámetros del proceso de conformado. En este contexto, cobra interés la fabricación aditiva, especialmente la fabricación por filamento en fundido (FFF) con aporte de granza en vez de filamento. En este trabajo, se propone el estudio de la viabilidad de fabricación MFCs induciendo la microfibrilación de una BioPA en las “ecoblends” PLA/BioPA. Se evalúan las condiciones óptimas de procesamiento del proceso FFF para su generación, el comportamiento a tracción uniaxial y el comportamiento a fractura (mediante técnicas de impacto instrumentado en probetas SENB) de las probetas resultantes. Las evidencias obtenidas muestran que el uso de una matriz de PLA modificada reológicamente mediante extrusión reactiva (PLAREx) promueve la obtención de MFCs con un mejor balance de propiedades mecánicas en términos de módulo elasticidad (E) y ductilidad, y una mejora en la tenacidad aparente de la estructura fabricada.Postprint (published version
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