Immune Receptors and Co-receptors in Antiviral Innate Immunity in Plants

Plants respond to pathogens using an innate immune system that is broadly divided into PTI (pathogen-associated molecular pattern- or PAMP-triggered immunity) and ETI (effector-triggered immunity). PTI is activated upon perception of PAMPs, conserved motifs derived from pathogens, by surface membrane-anchored pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). To overcome this first line of defense, pathogens release into plant cells effectors that inhibit PTI and activate effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS). Counteracting this virulence strategy, plant cells synthesize intracellular resistance (R) proteins, which specifically recognize pathogen effectors or avirulence (Avr) factors and activate ETI. These coevolving pathogen virulence strategies and plant resistance mechanisms illustrate evolutionary arms race between pathogen and host, which is integrated into the zigzag model of plant innate immunity. Although antiviral immune concepts have been initially excluded from the zigzag model, recent studies have provided several lines of evidence substantiating the notion that plants deploy the innate immune system to fight viruses in a manner similar to that used for non-viral pathogens. First, most R proteins against viruses so far characterized share structural similarity with antibacterial and antifungal R gene products and elicit typical ETI-based immune responses. Second, virus-derived PAMPs may activate PTI-like responses through immune co-receptors of plant PTI. Finally, and even more compelling, a viral Avr factor that triggers ETI in resistant genotypes has recently been shown to act as a suppressor of PTI, integrating plant viruses into the co-evolutionary model of host-pathogen interactions, the zigzag model. In this review, we summarize these important progresses, focusing on the potential significance of antiviral immune receptors and co-receptors in plant antiviral innate immunity. In light of the innate immune system, we also discuss a newly uncovered layer of antiviral defense that is specific to plant DNA viruses and relies on transmembrane receptor-mediated translational suppression for defense

Homeopathic Individualized Q-Potencies versus Fluoxetine for Moderate to Severe Depression: Double-Blind, Randomized Non-Inferiority Trial

Homeopathy is a complementary and integrative medicine used in depression, The aim of this study is to investigate the non-inferiority and tolerability of individualized homeopathic medicines [Quinquagintamillesmial (Q-potencies)] in acute depression, using fluoxetine as active control. Ninety-one outpatients with moderate to severe depression were assigned to receive an individualized homeopathic medicine or fluoxetine 20 mg day−1 (up to 40 mg day−1) in a prospective, randomized, double-blind double-dummy 8-week, single-center trial. Primary efficacy measure was the analysis of the mean change in the Montgomery & Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) depression scores, using a non-inferiority test with margin of 1.45. Secondary efficacy outcomes were response and remission rates. Tolerability was assessed with the side effect rating scale of the Scandinavian Society of Psychopharmacology. Mean MADRS scores differences were not significant at the 4th (P = .654) and 8th weeks (P = .965) of treatment. Non-inferiority of homeopathy was indicated because the upper limit of the confidence interval (CI) for mean difference in MADRS change was less than the non-inferiority margin: mean differences (homeopathy-fluoxetine) were −3.04 (95% CI −6.95, 0.86) and −2.4 (95% CI −6.05, 0.77) at 4th and 8th week, respectively. There were no significant differences between the percentages of response or remission rates in both groups. Tolerability: there were no significant differences between the side effects rates, although a higher percentage of patients treated with fluoxetine reported troublesome side effects and there was a trend toward greater treatment interruption for adverse effects in the fluoxetine group. This study illustrates the feasibility of randomized controlled double-blind trials of homeopathy in depression and indicates the non-inferiority of individualized homeopathic Q-potencies as compared to fluoxetine in acute treatment of outpatients with moderate to severe depression

EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL CONTENT ON DECLARATIVE MEMORY: TWO STUDIES CONDUCTED ON HEALTHY SUBJECTS AND CEPHALALGIC PATIENTS

RESUMEN Varios estudios sugieren que el despertar emocional puede promover el almacenamiento de información en la memoria. Nosotros reportamos dos estudios evaluando los efectos del contenido emocional sobre la memoria declarativa, efectuados con sujetos sanos y pacientes cefalálgicos. Utilizamos una adaptación de dos versiones del mismo relato, con diferentes propiedades (neutral o emocional), la cual ha sido previamente empleada en experimentos que abordan los efectos de mejoría sobre la retención de la memoria causados por las emociones. En el primer estudio, efectuado en estudiantes sanos, empleamos potenciales relacionados a eventos (PRE) para evaluar si existe una lateralización hemisférica relacionada al sexo, de los potenciales eléctricos producidos por el contenido emocional de un relato. Comparamos las ondas P300 de los hemisferios izquierdo y derecho, registrados en los sitios correspondientes a los electrodos P3 y P4, en respuesta a estímulos neutrales o emocionales en hombres y mujeres. Los estímulos emocionales produjeron un P300 mayor, medido tanto por la amplitud como por la latencia del potencial, en el hemisferio izquierdo de mujeres comparado con el de los hombres, sin embargo, produjeron un P300 mayor en el hemisferio derecho en los hombres comparado con el de las mujeres. La mejoría en la memoria, originada por el contenido emocional de la información, puede estar relacionada con el diferencial del componente P300 durante la codificación. Estos datos indican que tanto el sexo como la lateralización hemisférica constituyen importantes factores que interactúan para influenciar tanto a los correlatos neurales de las emociones como a la memoria influenciada emocionalmente.En el segundo estudio evaluamos la influencia del mismo estímulo emocional, utilizado en el primer estudio, sobre la memoria declarativa de pacientes cefalálgicos, que padecen migraña, divididos en dos grupos: migrañosos sin ningún tratamiento y migrañosos tratados con el antidepresivo amitriptilina. No se efectúo análisis de los PRE en esta parte de la investigación. Los hallazgos del presente experimento sugieren que la migraña crónica es asociada con deterioros en la memoria. Considerando que la migraña se asocia con depresión mayor, la presente investigación evaluó también el efecto del antidepresivo amitriptilina. Nuestros resultados mostraron que la amitriptilina tiene un efecto dañino sobre la memoria. De hecho, en nuestro estudio los migrañosos sin tratamiento recordaron la parte más emotiva del relato, de manera significativamente mejor comparados con los migrañosos tratados con amitriptilina. Por lo tanto, nuestros datos sugieren que la amitriptilina bloquea los efectos de mejoría sobre el procesamiento de la memoria causados por el contenido emocional de la información. Palabras clave: Memoria emocional, potenciales relacionados a eventos, componente P300, migraña, amitriptilina. ABSTRACT Several studies suggest that emotional arousal can promote memory storage. We report two studies evaluating the effects of emotional content on declarative memory, conducted with healthy subjects and cephalgic patients. We utilized an adaptation of two versions of the same story, with different arousing properties (neutral or emotional), which have been already employed in experiments involving the enhancing effects of emotions on memory retention. In the first study, conducted on healthy students, we used event related potentials (ERP) to evaluate whether there is a sex-related hemispheric lateralization of electrical potentials elicited by the emotional content of a story. We compared left and right hemisphere P300 waves, recorded in P3 and P4 electrode sites, in response to emotional or neutral stimuli in men and women. In the left hemisphere, emotional stimuli elicited a stronger P300 in women, compared to men, as indexed by both amplitude and latency measures; moreover, the emotional content of the story elicited a stronger P300 in the right hemisphere in men than in women. The better memory for the arousal material may be related to the differential P300 at encoding. These data indicate that both sex and cerebral hemisphere constitute important, interacting influences on neural correlates of emotion, and of emotionally influenced memory.In the second study we evaluated the influence of the same emotional stimuli, utilized in the first study, on declarative memory on cephalalgic patients, suffering from migraine headache, divided in 2 groups: migraineurs without any treatment and migraineurs treated with the antidepressant amitriptyline. No ERP analysis was performed in this part of research. The findings of the present experiments suggest that chronic migraine is associated with memory impairment. Taking into account that migraine is associated with major depression, in the present research the effect of the antidepressant amitriptyline was also evaluated. Our results showed that amitriptyline has an impairment effect on memory. In fact, in our study the untreated migraineurs recalled the most emotional phase of the arousal story significantly better compared to migraineurs treated with amitriptyline. Then, our data suggest that amitriptyline prevents the enhancing effects of emotional content on memory processes. Key words: emotional memory, event related potentials, P300 wave, migraine, amitriptyline

EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL CONTENT ON DECLARATIVE MEMORY: TWO STUDIES CONDUCTED ON HEALTHY SUBJECTS AND CEPHALALGIC PATIENTS

RESUMEN Varios estudios sugieren que el despertar emocional puede promover el almacenamiento de información en la memoria. Nosotros reportamos dos estudios evaluando los efectos del contenido emocional sobre la memoria declarativa, efectuados con sujetos sanos y pacientes cefalálgicos. Utilizamos una adaptación de dos versiones del mismo relato, con diferentes propiedades (neutral o emocional), la cual ha sido previamente empleada en experimentos que abordan los efectos de mejoría sobre la retención de la memoria causados por las emociones. En el primer estudio, efectuado en estudiantes sanos, empleamos potenciales relacionados a eventos (PRE) para evaluar si existe una lateralización hemisférica relacionada al sexo, de los potenciales eléctricos producidos por el contenido emocional de un relato. Comparamos las ondas P300 de los hemisferios izquierdo y derecho, registrados en los sitios correspondientes a los electrodos P3 y P4, en respuesta a estímulos neutrales o emocionales en hombres y mujeres. Los estímulos emocionales produjeron un P300 mayor, medido tanto por la amplitud como por la latencia del potencial, en el hemisferio izquierdo de mujeres comparado con el de los hombres, sin embargo, produjeron un P300 mayor en el hemisferio derecho en los hombres comparado con el de las mujeres. La mejoría en la memoria, originada por el contenido emocional de la información, puede estar relacionada con el diferencial del componente P300 durante la codificación. Estos datos indican que tanto el sexo como la lateralización hemisférica constituyen importantes factores que interactúan para influenciar tanto a los correlatos neurales de las emociones como a la memoria influenciada emocionalmente.En el segundo estudio evaluamos la influencia del mismo estímulo emocional, utilizado en el primer estudio, sobre la memoria declarativa de pacientes cefalálgicos, que padecen migraña, divididos en dos grupos: migrañosos sin ningún tratamiento y migrañosos tratados con el antidepresivo amitriptilina. No se efectúo análisis de los PRE en esta parte de la investigación. Los hallazgos del presente experimento sugieren que la migraña crónica es asociada con deterioros en la memoria. Considerando que la migraña se asocia con depresión mayor, la presente investigación evaluó también el efecto del antidepresivo amitriptilina. Nuestros resultados mostraron que la amitriptilina tiene un efecto dañino sobre la memoria. De hecho, en nuestro estudio los migrañosos sin tratamiento recordaron la parte más emotiva del relato, de manera significativamente mejor comparados con los migrañosos tratados con amitriptilina. Por lo tanto, nuestros datos sugieren que la amitriptilina bloquea los efectos de mejoría sobre el procesamiento de la memoria causados por el contenido emocional de la información. Palabras clave: Memoria emocional, potenciales relacionados a eventos, componente P300, migraña, amitriptilina. ABSTRACT Several studies suggest that emotional arousal can promote memory storage. We report two studies evaluating the effects of emotional content on declarative memory, conducted with healthy subjects and cephalgic patients. We utilized an adaptation of two versions of the same story, with different arousing properties (neutral or emotional), which have been already employed in experiments involving the enhancing effects of emotions on memory retention. In the first study, conducted on healthy students, we used event related potentials (ERP) to evaluate whether there is a sex-related hemispheric lateralization of electrical potentials elicited by the emotional content of a story. We compared left and right hemisphere P300 waves, recorded in P3 and P4 electrode sites, in response to emotional or neutral stimuli in men and women. In the left hemisphere, emotional stimuli elicited a stronger P300 in women, compared to men, as indexed by both amplitude and latency measures; moreover, the emotional content of the story elicited a stronger P300 in the right hemisphere in men than in women. The better memory for the arousal material may be related to the differential P300 at encoding. These data indicate that both sex and cerebral hemisphere constitute important, interacting influences on neural correlates of emotion, and of emotionally influenced memory.In the second study we evaluated the influence of the same emotional stimuli, utilized in the first study, on declarative memory on cephalalgic patients, suffering from migraine headache, divided in 2 groups: migraineurs without any treatment and migraineurs treated with the antidepressant amitriptyline. No ERP analysis was performed in this part of research. The findings of the present experiments suggest that chronic migraine is associated with memory impairment. Taking into account that migraine is associated with major depression, in the present research the effect of the antidepressant amitriptyline was also evaluated. Our results showed that amitriptyline has an impairment effect on memory. In fact, in our study the untreated migraineurs recalled the most emotional phase of the arousal story significantly better compared to migraineurs treated with amitriptyline. Then, our data suggest that amitriptyline prevents the enhancing effects of emotional content on memory processes. Key words: emotional memory, event related potentials, P300 wave, migraine, amitriptyline

Reconhecimento antecipado de problemas ortográficos em escreventes novatos: quando e como acontecem

A aprendizagem da ortográfica constitui um processo complexo, envolvendo questões lexicais e gramaticais. Muitos estudos sobre essa aprendizagem tratam os problemas ortográficos de modo independente e separado da produção textual. Neste estudo defendemos a importância de se analisar a aprendizagem da ortografia a partir da perspectiva proposta pela Genética Textual, colocando em destaque a gênese do processo de escritura e criação textual. Apresentamos o Sistema Ramos, metodologia de investigação que registra o processo de escritura em tempo e espaço real da sala de aula. Esse Sistema oferece informações multimodais (fala, escrita, gestualidade) sobre o que alunos, em duplas, reconhecem como problemas ortográficos (PO) e os comentários espontâneos feitos quando estão escrevendo o texto. Este estudo analisa justamente o momento em que aconteceram esses reconhecimentos e os comentários de duas alunas no 2º ano de escolaridade, durante a produção de seis histórias inventadas. Mais do que uma análise quantitativa dos tipos de PO identificados no produto, apresentamos uma análise enunciativa e microgenética de reconhecimentos de PO e seus comentários, particularmente aqueles PO antecipados pelas escreventes. Os resultados indicam: i. Reconhecimentos ensejam comentários nem sempre relacionados ao PO identificado; ii. Reconhecimentos e comentários estão relacionados aos conteúdos ortográficos ensinados em sala de aula; iii. Alguns PO reconhecidos envolvem a articulação de diferentes níveis linguísticos. Esses aspectos podem contribuir para a compreensão da aprendizagem da ortografia em situações didáticas propiciadas pela escrita colaborativa a dois.The acquisition of spelling competence is a complex process, involving lexical and grammatical questions. Research, however, almost always places the spelling from an autonomous point of view and disconnected from the other components of writing. In this text, we present the relevance of the Ramos System that captures students in an ecological situation of text production in pairs, allowing access to the processes for solving orthographic problems. Collaborative writing also grants access to comments made by students during the process of textual linearization. Our study focuses on the recognition of spelling problems (SP) and the comments made regarding such problems by two 2nd grade students during the production of six invented stories. More than a quantitative analysis of the types of SP identified in the product, we were interested in making a qualitative and fine analysis of oral recognitions of SP, particularly those SP anticipated by the writers. Our results indicate that: i. Recognition motivates comments that are not always related to the identified SP; ii. Recognition and comments are related to the orthographic contents taught in the classroom; iii. Some of the recognized SP involve the articulation between different linguistic levels. These aspects can contribute for the comprehension of orthographic learning in didactic situations provided by collaborative writing.publishe

Comparative Coastal Risk Index (CCRI): A multidisciplinary risk index for Latin America and the Caribbean

As the world's population grows to a projected 11.2 billion by 2100, the number of people living in low-lying areas exposed to coastal hazards is projected to increase. Critical infrastructure and valuable assets continue to be placed in vulnerable areas, and in recent years, millions of people have been displaced by natural hazards. Impacts from coastal hazards depend on the number of people, value of assets, and presence of critical resources in harm's way. Risks related to natural hazards are determined by a complex interaction between physical hazards, the vulnerability of a society or social-ecological system and its exposure to such hazards. Moreover, these risks are amplified by challenging socioeconomic dynamics, including poorly planned urban development, income inequality, and poverty. This study employs a combination of machine learning clustering techniques (Self Organizing Maps and K-Means) and a spatial index, to assess coastal risks in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) on a comparative scale. The proposed method meets multiple objectives, including the identification of hotspots and key drivers of coastal risk, and the ability to process large-volume multidimensional and multivariate datasets, effectively reducing sixteen variables related to coastal hazards, geographic exposure, and socioeconomic vulnerability, into a single index. Our results demonstrate that in LAC, more than 500,000 people live in areas where coastal hazards, exposure (of people, assets and ecosystems) and poverty converge, creating the ideal conditions for a perfect storm. Hotspot locations of coastal risk, identified by the proposed Comparative Coastal Risk Index (CCRI), contain more than 300,00 people and include: El Oro, Ecuador; Sinaloa, Mexico; Usulutan, El Salvador; and Chiapas, Mexico. Our results provide important insights into potential adaptation alternatives that could reduce the impacts of future hazards. Effective adaptation options must not only focus on developing coastal defenses, but also on improving practices and policies related to urban development, agricultural land use, and conservation, as well as ameliorating socioeconomic conditions