Using ensemble modeling to predict breeding habitat of the red-listed Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) in the Western Himalayas of Pakistan

Quantifying a species geographic range is a necessary requirement for targeted and effective conservation management and planning. The Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) is a globally threatened Galliformes, endemic to the Western Himalayas. The breeding habitat of the species is believed to be exposed to increased anthropogenic pressures. There is a general lack of empirically-based approaches to protect the breeding habitat of this species. To this end, we used recent records of breeding tragopan to develop an ensemble model of the breeding habitat in Pakistan for this Vulnerable species. The model predicted a total area of 10,410 km2 as potential breeding habitat for the species nationally. Of this, 2979 km2 (28.6%) were potentially highly suitable (P > 0.4), 2544 km2 (24.4%) were moderately suitable (0.2 >P < 0.4), and 4887 km2 (46.9%) were of low suitability (P < 0.2). The breeding sites of the species were recorded with mean global human modification gradient of 0.33 ± 0.06 which implies that habitat suitability for the Tragopan now appears associated with areas of moderate land modification. Therefore, the predicted highly suitable area (core breeding area) was only 79 km2 (or 2.6%) of the total predicted area suitable for breeding. Hence, the potential breeding habitat of this species may be degraded owing to human habitat interference. We propose that the remaining pockets of high suitability for breeding which remain free from human impacts are declared as protected areas with immediate effect. Areas of high suitability with already existing human disturbance should receive high attention by conservation managers and policy makers, attempting to reduce further human impact. Our model further suggests that more detailed studies at a landscape level should be carried out urgently to successfully protect this globally threatened species from further habitat deterioration

The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Conserving Globally Threatened Western Tragopan Tragopan melanocephalus.

Protected areas are a critical tool to conserve biodiversity in the face of the global crisis of species extinction. Here, we present the first ever management effectiveness assessment of Pakistan's Protected Areas (PAs). We link these assessments to the delivery of conservation outcomes focusing on the threatened Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) endemic to Pakistan and India. We used two approaches, first mapping the spatial distribution of potential habitat coverage using machine learning ensemble models and second, an assessment of the management effectiveness of protected areas. Our results show that only Machiara National Park scored just above 40% (indicating relatively weak management), 22 of the PAs fell within the 25-50% quantile (indicating weak management), and 3 scored below 25% (indicating poor management). PAs within the species distributional range covered 92,387 ha which is only 2% of the total potential habitat of the Tragopan. Scoring of Planning element was insufficient both in term of the site and species. Likewise, inputs (e.g., research and monitoring program, staff numbers, staff training, current budget, security of budget, and management after process) were also inadequate. Finally, we recommend the establishment of more protected areas within the species potential habitat and inclusion of species-specific plans in Pakistan's PAs management

Survival, habitat use and disturbance behaviour of re-introduced grey partridges "Perdix perdix" L. in an enhanced arable landscape in the Swiss Klettgau

In the last forty years, the Swiss lowlands have lost much of their former value as habitat for wild plants and animals, mainly because of the effects of modern farming practices. One of the most prominent and charismatic species affected is the Grey Partridge Perdix perdix L. Considering the alarming decline of the Grey Partridge, the Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (SAEFL) entrusted the Swiss Ornithological Institute in 1991 to undertake a ten year project on “Protection measures for brown hare and Grey Partridge” (Jenny et al. 2002). In this context the “Klettgau” in the canton of Schaffhausen was chosen as study area as it was one of the two regions in Switzerland where wild partridges still remained in small numbers at that time. To reverse the main cause of the partridge’s decline - habitat loss - the main activity in the early stages of the project was the promotion of ecologically enhanced habitats such as wild-flower strips and hedges. Unfortunately, the already very small partridge population went extinct shortly after the beginning of the project. However, by 1998 the area of partridge-friendly habitats had grown to such an extent that it allowed to launch a partridge re-introduction project. This was undertaken as part of the Swiss Ornithological Institute’s project “Birds as test organisms to evaluate enhanced habitat diversity in agricultural areas” which was launched in 1996. The main aims of this thesis for which the data was collected between 1998 and 2001 are to assess whether Grey Partridges: 1) are able to survive and reproduce in an ecologically enhanced landscape such as the Klettgau, 2) make use of the enhanced areas and, if so, which value they have for them, 3) are disturbed by human and predator activities within the re-introduction area, 4) to conclude if and under what conditions further partridge re-introductions in Switzerland might be successful. Study area The study area (c. 530 ha) is intensively cultivated, mainly for growing cereals (49%), oilseed rape and sunflowers (14%) and root crops (12%). Grassland covered 11%, another 11% were bare of vegetation (buildings, roads, etc). Permanent cover such as wild-flower strips, hedgerows and grass banks amounted to 3% of the area. Field sizes ranged from 0.1 to 5.5 ha. From 1991 to 2001 the area of wild-flower strips increased from 0 ha to 12 ha, the area of hedgerows from 2 ha to 2.7 ha. Besides agricultural use, the study area is very popular for recreation mainly by walkers with or without dogs and riders. In the centre of the study site there is a dog training school and an arena to school horses, in the northern part of the area there is a cycling route. Origin of birds released Originally it was planned to release wild translocated birds of the western clade of the subspecies Perdix perdix perdix only (50 per year) as it is widely accepted that this technique generates the highest possible re-introduction success in areas where the species has become extinct. After the first year of this study however, it became apparent that it was impossible to organize enough wild-caught birds for release (n = 21 released in total). I therefore had to switch to the next most promising option which I considered to be parent-reared birds released as coveys in autumn (n = 77). In the second and third year of this study we additionally fostered parent-reared chicks to already re-established adult birds which had failed to produce their own young (n = 32). Dispersal, survival and causes of death Of the 98 released adult partridges, 73% remained within the study area and 52% survived the first month after release. During the first month after release, they frequently moved across the whole research area. After settling, 98% of all partridge locations were recorded in that part of the study area where the density of enhanced areas was maximal. Survival was highest in wild-hatched partridges of the founder population (mean ± SE; 0.90 ± 0.03), followed by that of fostered chicks (0.86 ± 0.03) and translocated adult wild birds (0.82 ± 0.06). While survival of these groups was not statistically different from each other, survival of captive-reared adults was significantly lower (0.70 ± 0.06). We found the carcasses of 91 partridges. 88 of them were predated, 1 died because of disease, 1 because of a traffic accident and 1 as a result of a territorial fight. Predation by mammals (mainly foxes) was twice as frequent as predation by avian predators. Reproductive success We observed 19 pairs that started egg laying. Of those, seven broods hatched and twelve failed. Mean clutch size of first clutches was 15.6 eggs (N = 9 clutches, SD = 1.3). Only one second clutch was found. 86% of all eggs hatched (N = 7 broods). The average percentage of successful nests over three years was only 0.33 [SE = 0.08]. When breeding the year after release, fostered chicks tended to have more successful nests (0.44 [SE = 0.43]) than when individuals of the other treatment groups were involved (reared adults: 0.17 [SE = 0.03]; translocated: 0.25 [SE = 0.07]; wild hatched in study area: 0.27 [SE = 0.29]), but the differences were not statistically significant. Eleven out of 19 nest were located in wild-flower strips. Habitat use and home range size At the level of the individual family group (pairs or coveys), we found a significantly greater use (throughout the year) of habitat areas that were enhanced with wild-flower strips and/or hedges, compared to non-enhanced areas. When the birds used the agricultural fields, densities of use declined sharply with increasing distance from the nearest enhanced area. Thus, the availability and spatial distribution of ecologically enhanced areas were the main determinants of the partridges’ range use. Despite their strongly over-proportional use of enhanced areas, the partridges spent a large proportion of time in cultivated fields. In summer, frequently visited vegetation types were cereals (average 26.1% of locations), root crops (14.8%) and grassland (9.3%). In winter, the birds spent much of their activity in cereals or stubble fields (32.7%) and rape (24.1%). This indicates that these types of vegetation, particularly cereals, were attractive resources, although not preferred in respect to their availability. The size of the group home-ranges varied significantly with season. In spring (prebreeding period) and summer (breeding period), the average home-ranges ( ± SD) were 6.8 ( ± 4.0) ha and 6.9 ( ± 2.6) ha, respectively. From late summer until the end of winter (nonbreeding period), the home-ranges were significantly larger; late summer: 15.2 ( ± 6.6) ha; autumn: 17.0 ( ± 4.0) ha; winter: 14.4 ( ± 3.6) ha. Disturbance Partridges showed a distinctive cause-specific reaction repertoire to all disturbance types compared, mainly crouching in presence of raptors and showing vigilance in presence of mammals (foxes and cats). Flushing was the main reaction when disturbed by leisure activities. When flushed, partridges reduced their flight distance by 54 metres compared to unforced flights and remained in their territory in 87% of all cases. In summer, their main escape cover was cultivated fields, whereas in winter they mainly used permanent cover such as wild-flower strips and hedges. The spatial distribution of partridges was influenced by season: In summer, partridges avoided areas with high human disturbance, whereas in winter they avoided areas with high predator abundance and close proximity to tall hedges. Human activities caused twice as much disturbance events as predators, with associated energetic costs. Overall, disturbance substantially limited overall spatial use, with consequences for the carrying capacity of the area. Conclusion This study shows that with enough staying power even the intensively exploited Swiss countryside may provide a satisfactory environment for a highly demanding species such as the Grey Partridge. Even though it is not possible to prove from this study’s results if further partridge re-introductions in Switzerland or abroad will be successful in terms of creating self-sustainable populations – for that the duration of the study was simply too short - it is possible to draw four basic conclusions for future partridge re-introduction projects: 1) Prior to every partridge re-introduction or re-establishment the habitat must be enhanced with permanent habitat structures such as hedgerows and wild-flower strips. 2) If translocated wild birds are not available for release, chicks should be fostered whenever possible, in the best case to wild birds still resident in the area. 3) Re-introductions should only be envisaged in areas with low predator numbers and human activities. 4) In order to find possible weaknesses in re-introduction projects, post-release monitoring is essential to ensure the project targets are met

How to Re-Introduce Gray Partridges - Conclusions from a Releasing Project in Switzerland

Once a widespread farmland bird in Switzerland, the Gray Partridge (Perdix perdix) has declined drastically since the 1960’s as a result of agricultural intensification and changes in predator abundance. In 1991 the wild population had dropped to ≈ 17 pairs only. We initiated a reintroduction experiment of Gray Partridge to investigate its feasibility for conservation of the species in Switzerland. Between 1998 and 2001 we released 145 partridges in the Swiss Klettgau, an intensively cultivated area from which the species had become extinct in 1993, but had since been ecologically enhanced with wild-flower strips and hedges up to 5.8% of the available habitat in the release area (≈530ha). Although the duration of the study was too short to prove if further partridge re-introductions in Switzerland or abroad will be successful in terms of creating self-sustainable populations, it is possible to draw four basic conclusions for future partridge re-introduction projects: 1) prior to every partridge re-introduction or re-establishment the habitat must be enhanced with permanent habitat structures, 2) if translocated wild birds are not available for release, chicks should be fostered whenever possible to increase their survival, in the best case to wild birds still resident in the area, 3) reintroductions should only be envisaged in areas with low predator numbers and human activities, 4) in order to find possible weaknesses in re-introduction projects, post-release monitoring is essential to ensure the project targets are met

A Review of Gray Partridge Restocking in the UK and its Implications for the UK Biodiversity Action Plan

The gray partridge Perdix perdix has been the subject of many re-introduction projects throughout the world. In earlier attempts many releases simply aimed to increase the number of individuals for harvesting. This is very different from a conservation project aiming to establish a self-sustaining population. In recent decades, the gray partridge has declined severely in abundance and it is a species of conservation concern throughout Western Europe. Until now, gray partridge releasing projects have mainly focused on releasing large numbers of captive-reared individuals, of which few survive because of heavy predation and low breeding success. We reviewed the scientific and gamekeepering literature, and found that nevertheless a number of traditional methods for rearing and releasing gray partridges exist. Although these have primarily been developed to supplement existing wild stocks to produce shootable resources, some can be re-used today for conservation purposes. The most promising system for producing birds for re-introduction and supplementation purposes is to obtain eggs from a reliable source, hatch and rear the chicks under bantams to eight weeks of age, then foster to failed pairs of wild gray partridges. A less labour-intensive alternative is to hatch and raise chicks under artificial heat and foster these to unsuccessful wild pairs. Obviously these two systems are dependent on the presence of local free-living wild birds. If no pairs of wild gray partridges are present it is necessary to establish a founder population first. We see two methods to achieve this goal, the release of coveys in autumn or of pairs in spring. An important pre-requisite to any restocking scheme is appropriate management including the provision of suitable habitat for feeding and nesting and the control of predators, otherwise restocking is unlikely to lead to long-term establishment

The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Conserving Globally Threatened Western Tragopan Tragopan melanocephalus

Protected areas are a critical tool to conserve biodiversity in the face of the global crisis of species extinction. Here, we present the first ever management effectiveness assessment of Pakistan’s Protected Areas (PAs). We link these assessments to the delivery of conservation outcomes focusing on the threatened Western Tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) endemic to Pakistan and India. We used two approaches, first mapping the spatial distribution of potential habitat coverage using machine learning ensemble models and second, an assessment of the management effectiveness of protected areas. Our results show that only Machiara National Park scored just above 40% (indicating relatively weak management), 22 of the PAs fell within the 25–50% quantile (indicating weak management), and 3 scored below 25% (indicating poor management). PAs within the species distributional range covered 92,387 ha which is only 2% of the total potential habitat of the Tragopan. Scoring of Planning element was insufficient both in term of the site and species. Likewise, inputs (e.g., research and monitoring program, staff numbers, staff training, current budget, security of budget, and management after process) were also inadequate. Finally, we recommend the establishment of more protected areas within the species potential habitat and inclusion of species-specific plans in Pakistan’s PAs management