Influence and Power: The Types of Authority in the Process of Scripturalization

Many scholars recognize the importance of authority in the process of scripturalization. The presence of words like “authority” and “au- thoritative” in definitions of the term “scripture” is ubiquitous. Many also identify authoritative status for a text as an important step on the way toward it becoming scripture. However, “authority” and the words that derived from it are ill-defined in most studies. Even when the term and its synonyms are defined, there is little empirical evidence for the type of reception described. Further, there is hardly any recognition of the various ways in which a text can be seen as authoritative (historically accurate, politically expedient, di- vinely inspired, etc.). This paper attempts to fill this gap in our knowledge by looking to ancient testimonies, which explicitly describe the reception of texts in order to discern the varieties of ways a text might be recognized as a nota- ble source

The LXX Myth and the Rise of Textual Fixity

This brief study investigates the desire for a fixed textual form as it pertains to scripture in the Judean tradition. It particularly delves into this phenomenon in three early versions of the Septuagint origin myth. is paper argues that this myth is invaluable for the study of transmission and reception of scripture, as it is one of the earliest testimonies to the desire for a scriptural text to be frozen. By highlighting the ways the author of the Letter of Aristeas, Philo, and Josephus deal with the issue of textual fixity in the origin myth, this study aims to elucidate the range of opinions held by Judeans concerning the process of transmission of their holy books

What Can 2Macc 2:13-15 Tell Us about the Biblical Canon?

Many scholars have used two verses from an epistle appended to the main body of 2 Maccabees to suggest a canon, proto-canon, or body of scripture is present already during the Hasmonean era and even before. We question such conclusions by investigating the background and contents of the epistle, using both historical-critical and rhetorical methods. This investigation concludes that it is more likely that the collections of books gathered by both Nehemiah and Judas Maccabeus are nationally edifying proof- texts for the customs argued for in the epistle. It is clear from the statements in 2 Maccabees 2:13-15 that the collection assembled by Nehemiah and Judas would be vastly different from any later notions of canon in the Judaeo-Christian tradition. These texts are not being offered to the addressees as the official word (whether of God, or of the temple authorities in Jerusalem), but as evidence of practices for which the epistle is advocating on the basis of their antiquity

The Battle of Emmaus and 1 Maccabees' Creative Use of Martial Law

Forty thousand infantry prepared for battle slowly march south toward Judea from the Seleucid capital in Antioch. They are joined by seven thousand cavalry with a single command: destroy Judea. Upon reaching the land they make camp at Emmaus and wait for a rather small band of Judean rebels to respond. Such is the opening scene of the battle of Emmaus, one of the many skirmishes descri- bed in 1 Maccabees. Typically, the invading force led by Seleucid courtiers, is im- mense, well-armed, and seemingly invincible. The point is underlined by the ar- rival of slavers and mercenaries from the nations roundabout seeking to earn a share of the spoils of victory that will surely present themselves. The small force of three thousand Judeans is presented as poorly armed and frightened, as usual. Yet, by tactical superiority and implied divine assistance Judas Maccabeus and his followers rout the invading army and enrich themselves by plunder, again as usual. This set of events, richly described in 1 Macc 3:38–4:25 will be the basis of our discussion of the interpretation of martial law in 1 Maccabees. We will seek to show that the description of this battle is rich with examples of both the realization of legal text in narrative and the understanding of narra- tive text as law

What Do You Do When a Text is Failing? The Letter of Aristeas and the Need for a New Pentateuch

This study highlights features of the Letter of Aristeas that reveal how that story conceives of the royal translation project. It will apply the concept of ‘auxiliary texts’ developed by Markus Dubischar based on the conversation theory of Paul Grice in order to show that Aristeas understands the Hebrew Pentateuch as a failing text. It will be shown that because Aristeas both respects the traditions and teachings contained within the Pentateuch, and recognizes the failure of the text outside of a particular context, it sees the translation as necessary for the Pentateuch’s survival. The study will compare the statements related in prologues from Graeco-Roman ‘auxiliary texts’ to statements in the Letter of Aristeas to underline the ways how the Greek translation of the Hebrew text is simultaneously conceived of as a correction of the problems inherent in the Hebrew text tradition, and is not attempting to entirely replace that tradition

Reading Aid: 2 Maccabees and the History of Jason of Cyrene Reconsidered

This article investigates the prefatory material in 2 Maccabees (2:19-32; 15:38-39) in order to reveal the motivation and attitude of the epitomator of 2 Maccabees toward the text he is adapting. The article argues that the concept of auxiliary texts, recog- nized in Graeco-Roman and Hellenistic texts by classicist Markus Dubischar, is the lens through which to properly understand the preface and therefore the scribe’s motivation for textual adaptation. The article further employs these conclusions to question whether other texts from the Judean milieu might also be best understood in this category

Sabbath Observance, Sabbath Innovation: The Hasmoneans and Their Legacy as Interpreters of the Law

Both 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees portray the Sabbath law as a central point of con- tention during the struggle over Judean law and tradition in the second century BCE (e.g., 1 Macc 1:41-50; 2 Macc 6:4-6). The Hasmonean family in particular is at times high- lighted as holding the Sabbath in high regard (2 Macc 5:27). In every available source, there is no question of the commitment to the inherited traditions concerning the Sabbath. However, in two passages, 1 Macc 2:29-41 and 9:43-53, the Hasmoneans are portrayed as acting in a way supported by few extant writings associated with Judean legal tradition: they engage in battle on the Sabbath. First Maccabees presents this as innovation on the part of the Hasmoneans. Josephus, who summarizes these events based upon 1 Maccabees, even recognizes this decision as the basis for normative prac- tice (Ant. 12.272-277). As several scholars (e.g., Bar Kochva, Weiss, Scolnic) have pointed out, this event could hardly have been the first time in Judean history the issue arose. They argue against this reading of the sources. This paper contends that the plain read- ing of the texts is correct and 1 Maccabees is being used as the basis for legal practice in Josephus’ writings

Toora 1. Makkabilaiskirjeessä : Kirjallisuudentutkimuksellinen näkökulma tekstianalyysiin

This study investigates a text that has only periodically aroused interest in the scholarly community. Though there have been a number of commentaries in recent decades dealing with the various issues related to the book, few monographs have been devoted to specific problems presented by 1Maccabees. Because of this, there are several areas wherein the understanding of the text and the history about which it reports might be furthered by an in depth study. This dissertation sets out to resolve one such subject. Though it has long been recognized by commentators that the law takes a primary place in the narrative and thought-world of 1Maccabees, the extent and role of the law have rarely been traced by scholars. There have been only two treatments of the subject: one (by Bernard Renaud) is a brief article, and another (by Diego Arehoevel) is a chapter within a much broader monograph, and both are now nearly fifty years old. Added to this, both studies disagree as to the role of the law within the narrative and the community that it portrays. Both also present their findings in a (perhaps) outdated linear Old Testament theological milieu, tying the understanding of the law to texts and communities that existed either long before or long after, depending on the scholar. They also do not take account of the literary critical findings that have since called into question the unity of 1Maccabees. On account of these methodological and chronological concerns, it seems a fresh approach is warranted. This dissertation makes two innovations in method to solve the problems with the earlier studies. First, it investigates the unity (or lack thereof) of the text. Because the two most recent studies by Martola and Williams both agree that the text has been redacted, but disagree as to the extent and location of redactions, it is necessary to approach the problem from a fresh perspective. Second, once the character of the text has been resolved, this thesis investigates how the law functions in each of the literary layers of the text and gives voice to the various perspectives on the law present in the text. This approach underlines and solves the main problems associated with the previous studies, while it must be conceded it also reveals a less satisfying answer for adherents to a linear Old Testament theology. The results of the study reveal that there are certain sections of the book wherein the law plays no role at all or is only incidentally mentioned. However, they underline that in two layers especially there is a concerted effort to place the law in the center of the community constructed by each author. Nevertheless the outlines of what can be included under the concept law differ from layer to layer. Because of the increased study of the Hasmonean and post-Hasmonean periods in biblical studies, the contributions of this study can be important for a wide range of scholars looking for comparisons to text and evidence coming from different contexts.Toora 1. Makkabilaiskirjeessä: Kirjallisuudentutkimuksellinen näkökulma tekstianalyysiin Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan meille yhtä tärkeimmistä lähteistä ymmärtää Juudean kapinaa seleukidien valtakuntaa vastaan toisella vuosisadalla eaa: 1. Makkabilaiskirjettä. Makkabilaiskirjeen mukaan kapina käydään kahdella rintamalla. Toisaalta sankarit taistelevat kreikkalaisia herroja vastaan vapauttaakseen itsensä tiukoista säädöksistä jotka rajoittavat heidän juutalaista tapakulttuuriaan ja kulttiaan. Toisaalta sankarien taistelua heikentävät ja estävät ne juutalaiset jotka pitävät kreikkalaisesta laista ja elämäntavasta ja toivovat näiden jatkuvan alueella. 1. Makkabilaiskirjeen loppu kuvaa sankareiden voittaneen sekä sisäiset että ulkoiset vastustajat, saavuttaen autonomian ja jopa itsenäisyyden. Kuten tästä tiivistelmästä käy ilmi, juutalaiset lait ovat keskeisessä osassa kirjeen kirjoittajan kuvittelemassa tai kuvaamassa yhteiskunnassa. Aiemmassa tutkimuksessa ei ole perinpohjaisesti tutkittu 1. Makkabilaiskirjeen lakien muotoa, kattavuutta, sisältöä ja tarkoitusta yhteisössä. Noin puoli vuosisataa sitten monet tutkijat lähestyivät ongelmaa eri näkökulmista, mutta heidän tutkimuksiaan heikensivät heidän oman aikansa asenteet, joista he eivät pystyneet irtautumaan. Ensiksikin he katsoivat juutalaisuuden olevan suhteellisen yhtenäinen ilmiö, joka jatkuvasti kehittyi varhaisista juuristaan ja saavutti huippunsa rabbiinisessa juutalaisuudessa ajanlaskumme ensimmäisten vuosisatojen aikana. Nykyaikaisempi käsitys juutalaisuudesta on, että se on ollut hyvin monitahoinen ilmiö sekä Raamatun synnyn että vielä Kristuksenkin aikana. Toiseksi, tutkijat käsittelivät 1. Makkabilaiskirjettä yhden henkilön kirjoittamana tekstinä, jonka he näin ollen katsoivat edustavan vain yhtä asennetta lakiin. Sen jälkeen on menestyksekkäästi esitetty, että kirje on kirjoitettu ainakin kahdessa vaiheessa ja että sen sisältämillä lähteillä on erittäin keskenään hyvin erilaiset käsitykset. On helppo huomata, kuinka nämä kaksi virhettä voivat vahvasti vaikuttaa heidän loppupäätöksiinsä lain tehtävästä ja roolista 1. Makkabilaiskirjeessä. Tämä tutkimus yrittää korjata nuo virheet ja tarjoaa uuden näkökulman lain funktioon 1. Makkabilaiskirjeessä. Se tekee sen ensinnäkin tutkimalla tekstiä ja löytämällä aineistoa, joka - monien viimeaikaisten tutkijoiden työhön perustuen - viittaa teoksen koostuvan neljästä eri kirjallisesta kerroksesta. Sen jälkeen väitöskirja keskittyy erikseen kuhunkin kerrostumaan ja lain funktioon niissä, sekä kuvaa lain funktin muuttumista kerros kerrokselta. Tämän väitöksen toivotaan antavan oman tärkeän panoksensa keskusteluun juutalaisesta laista ennen Jeesuksen aikaa ja historiallisen juutalaisen kapinan aikana. Lisäksi tutkimus osallistuu viimeaikaisiin keskusteluihin 1. Makkabilaiskirjan luonteesta kiinnittäessään huomiota tekstin monivaiheiseen syntyprosessiin

Sore throat: Effective communication delivers improved diagnosis, enhanced self-care and more rational use of antibiotics

The majority of throat infections are of viral origin and resolve without antibiotic treatment. Despite this, antibiotic use for sore throat infections remains high, partly because it is difficult to determine when antibiotics may be useful, on the basis of physical findings alone. Antibiotics may be beneficial in bacterial throat infections under certain clinical and epidemiological circumstances; however, even many of those infections in which bacteria play a role do resolve just as quickly without antibiotics. Furthermore, non-medical factors such as patient expectations and patient pressure are also important drivers of antibiotic use. To address these issues, a behavioural change is required that can be facilitated by improved communication between primary healthcare providers and patients. In this article, we provide doctors, nurses and pharmacy staff, working in primary care or in the community, with a structured approach to sore throat management, with the aim of educating and empowering patients to self-manage their condition. The first component of this approach involves identifying and addressing patients' expectations and concerns with regard to their sore throat and eliciting their opinion on antibiotics. The second part is dedicated to a pragmatic assessment of the severity of the condition, with attention to red-flag symptoms and risk factors for serious complications. Rather than just focusing on the cause (bacterial or viral) of the upper respiratory tract infections as a rationale for antibiotic use, healthcare providers should instead consider the severity of the patient's condition and whether they are at high risk of complications. The third part involves counselling patients on effective self-management options and providing information on the expected clinical course. Such a structured approach to sore throat management, using empathetic, non-paternalistic language, combined with written patient information, will help to drive patient confidence in self-care and encourage them to accept the self-limiting character of the illness - important steps towards improving antibiotic stewardship in acute throat infections. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd