Les hospitaliers de Rhodes au regard de leur voeu de pauvreté au XVe siècle (1420-1480)

Tous les frères de l’Ordre de l’Hôpital prononçaient lors de leur admission les trois vœux de pauvreté personnelle, de chasteté et d’obéissance à leur Maître. La règle de l’Hôpital (circa 1120) et d’autres premiers statuts interdisaient aux frères de vivre avec des biens propres et leur ordonnaient de vivre dans un dépouillement semblable à celui des membres d’autres ordres réguliers établis aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles. Le but de cette étude est d’examiner les règles existantes en la matière puis de voir dans quelle mesure les Hospitaliers résidant au couvent de Rhodes au XVe siècle étaient fidèles à leur vœu de pauvreté. À cette époque, Rhodes était le siège du gouvernement central de l’Ordre sous la conduite du Maître mais également un bastion militaire, face aux Mamelouks de l’Égypte et aux Turcs Ottomans alors en plein essor conquérant. Entre trois cent et cinq cent frères étaient réunis pendant de longues périodes de séjour au couvent pour résister à toutes attaques. Nous passerons en revue les prescriptions et pratiques qui gouvernaient cette originale communauté religieuse et militaire. Comme pour la plupart des autres ordres religieux réguliers, la pratique de la pauvreté personnelle s’était profondément altérée par rapport aux premiers temps de l’Hôpital. Les Hospitaliers, à Rhodes comme dans leurs commanderies occidentales, étaient autorisés à accéder à la propriété personnelle, sous des formes diverses bien qu’avec des limites. Leur vie au couvent était loin d’être ascétique mais à leur mort, leurs biens revenaient à l’Ordre

The Hospitallers of Rhodes and their Vow of Poverty in the 15th Century (1420-1480)

All brethren of the Order of the Hospital took the three monastic vows when they were admitted to the Order: personal poverty, chastity and obedience to their Master. The rule of the Hospital (circa 1120) and further early statutes forbade the brethren to hold private property and ordered them to live in the same state of poverty as the members of other regular orders established in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The purpose of this study, after examining the regulations in this respect, is to investigate to what extent the Hospitallers residing at the convent of Rhodes in the fifteenth century were faithful to their vow. At this period Rhodes was the head of the central government of the Order, under its Master, as well as a military stronghold in the Eastern Mediterranean, in face of the Mamluks of Egypt and the rapidly expanding Ottoman Turks. Three to five hundred brethren gathered for long periods of stay at the convent in order to resist any attack. We shall review in detail the ordinances and practices which ruled over this original religious as well as military community. As with most other regular religious orders, the practice of personal poverty had been deeply modified in comparison with the first times. The Hospitallers, at Rhodes as well as in their Western commanderies, were allowed to hold various forms of private property although within certain limits and their life at the convent was far from being ascetic However after death their property was recovered by the Order

La crise financière des Hospitaliers de Rhodes au quinzième siècle (1426-1480)

The Order of the Hospital, which was established at Rhodes from 1310, experienced a long and serious financial crisis as a consequence of several attacks from the Mamluks, from 1426 to 1444, followed by others from the Ottoman Turks after 1453. The Order had to face heavy expenses to defend itself and needed large supplies of money. This article will describe the Treasury organization of the Order, the extent of its debts and the measures taken to improve the situation. Censals, bills of exchange, usury loans and masked loans were some of the ways used to raise funds. The Order requested fi nancial support from the Western merchants who were established at Rhodes, especially from the Catalans. There were many recovery plans, in some cases with the arbitration of the Papacy.L'Ordre de l'Hôpital installé à l'île de Rhodes depuis 1310 connut une longue et grave crise fi nancière lorsque, à partir de 1426, les attaques des Mamelouks du sultan d'Égypte puis, après 1453, celles des Turcs ottomans à la conquête de la Méditerranée orientale le mirent en grand danger. Il dut dépenser, et pour cela trouver, des sommes considérables pour préparer sa défense. Cet article se propose d'abord de présenter l'organisation des finances de l'Ordre au XVe siècle, autour du Trésor, puis de faire l'inventaire de l'endettement et des mesures prises pour s'efforcer de redresser la situation. Les emprunts avaient pris de multiples formes: censals, lettres de change, prêts usuraires, prêts déguisés, etc. L'Ordre fi t largement appel aux marchands d'Occident fréquentant Rhodes, en particulier aux Catalans. Les plans de redressement furent nombreux et entraînèrent l'intervention de la papauté

Accounting for Patterns of Collective Behavior in Crowd Locomotor Dynamics for Realistic Simulations

International audienceDo people in a crowd behave like a set of isolated individuals or like a cohesive group? Studies of crowd modeling usually consider pedestrian behavior either from the point of view of an isolated individual or from that of large swarms. We introduce here a study of small crowds walking towards a common goal and propose to make the link between individual behavior and crowd dynamics. Data show that participants, even though not instructed to behave collectively, do form a cohesive group and do not merely treat one another as obstacles. We present qualitative and quantitative measurements of this collective behavior, and propose a first set of patterns characterizing such behavior. This work is part of a wider effort to test crowd models against observed data

Mutations of RNA polymerase II activate key genes of the nucleoside triphosphate biosynthetic pathways

The yeast URA2 gene, encoding the rate-limiting enzyme of UTP biosynthesis, is transcriptionally activated by UTP shortage. In contrast to other genes of the UTP pathway, this activation is not governed by the Ppr1 activator. Moreover, it is not due to an increased recruitment of RNA polymerase II at the URA2 promoter, but to its much more effective progression beyond the URA2 mRNA start site(s). Regulatory mutants constitutively expressing URA2 resulted from cis-acting deletions upstream of the transcription initiator region, or from amino-acid replacements altering the RNA polymerase II Switch 1 loop domain, such as rpb1-L1397S. These two mutation classes allowed RNA polymerase to progress downstream of the URA2 mRNA start site(s). rpb1-L1397S had similar effects on IMD2 (IMP dehydrogenase) and URA8 (CTP synthase), and thus specifically activated the rate-limiting steps of UTP, GTP and CTP biosynthesis. These data suggest that the Switch 1 loop of RNA polymerase II, located at the downstream end of the transcription bubble, may operate as a specific sensor of the nucleoside triphosphates available for transcription

Physicochemical properties of bacterial cellulose obtained from different Kombucha fermentation conditions

The production of bacterial cellulose has been limited due to its high cost and low productivity. Alternative low‐cost sources of this biopolymer of high purity and biocompatibility are needed in order to benefit from its enormous potential. Kombucha tea is a trend functional beverage whose production is growing exponentially worldwide, and the bacteria present in this fermented beverage belonging to the genus Komagataeibacter are capable of producing a crystalline biofilm with interesting properties. Obtaining bacterial cellulose from Kombucha tea has already been studied, however several fermentation conditions are being optimized in order to scale‐up its production. In this study, we characterized the bacterial cellulose produced from three different Kombucha fermentation conditions. The scanning electron microscopy images revealed the crystalline structure of the biofilms. The energy‐dispersive x‐ray analysis exhibited the chemical composition of the crystals. The thermogravimetric analysis showed a rate of degradation between 490 and 560°C and the differential scanning calorimetry confirmed the presence of crystalline and amorphous regions in the bacterial cellulose samples. The results suggested that crystalline cellulose could be obtained by varying the fermentation conditions of Kombucha tea

Limit on Bs0B^0_s oscillation using a jet charge method

A lower limit is set on the B_{s}^{0} meson oscillation parameter \Delta m_{s} using data collected from 1991 to 1994 by the ALEPH detector. Events with a high transverse momentum lepton and a reconstructed secondary vertex are used. The high transverse momentum leptons are produced mainly by b hadron decays, and the sign of the lepton indicates the particle/antiparticle final state in decays of neutral B mesons. The initial state is determined by a jet charge technique using both sides of the event. A maximum likelihood method is used to set a lower limit of \, \Delta m_{s}. The 95\% confidence level lower limit on \Delta m_s ranges between 5.2 and 6.5(\hbar/c^{2})~ps^{-1} when the fraction of b quarks from Z^0 decays that form B_{s}^{0} mesons is varied from 8\% to 16\%. Assuming that the B_{s}^{0} fraction is 12\%, the lower limit would be \Delta m_{s} 6.1(\hbar/c^{2})~ps^{-1} at 95\% confidence level. For x_s = \Delta m_s \, \tau_{B_s}, this limit also gives x_s 8.8 using the B_{s}^{0} lifetime of \tau_{B_s} = 1.55 \pm 0.11~ps and shifting the central value of \tau_{B_s} down by 1\sigma

Measurement of the Bs0^0_s lifetime and production rate with Ds−l+^-_s l^+ combinations in Z decays

The lifetime of the \bs meson is measured in approximately 3 million hadronic Z decays accumulated using the ALEPH detector at LEP from 1991 to 1994. Seven different \ds decay modes were reconstructed and combined with an opposite sign lepton as evidence of semileptonic \bs decays. Two hundred and eight \dsl candidates satisfy selection criteria designed to ensure precise proper time reconstruction and yield a measured \bs lifetime of \mbox{\result .} Using a larger, less constrained sample of events, the product branching ratio is measured to be \mbox{\pbrresult