Copyright

Copyright is the branch of Intellectual Property Law that governs works of expression such as books, paintings and songs, and the expressive aspects of computer programs. Intellectual products such as these have a partially public goods character: they are largely inexhaustible and nonexcludable. Intellectual Property Law responds to inexcludability by giving producers legal rights to exclude nonpayers from certain usages of their intellectual products. The goal is to provide incentives for new production at fairly low transaction costs. However, the copyright owner will charge a price above marginal cost and this, coupled with the inexhaustibility of most copyrighted products, creates deadweight loss. Various copyright doctrines (such as the idea/expression dichotomy, the limited duration of the copyright ownership term and the doctrine of ‘fair use’) work to reduce deadweight loss and other costs within a larger structure that creates incentives. Copyright Law, unlike Patent Law, gives owners rights only against those who actually copy the work. This limitation, too, may serve to reduce both transaction costs and deadweight loss. Empirically it is unclear how successful copyright has been in creating incentives for production, reducing transaction costs and keeping deadweight costs low

Rural crime and law

This paper discusses the nature and extent of rural crime and suggested solutions to rural crime; providing the author’s opinion on mandatory sentencing, increased penalties, certainty of detection, and reduction of the profit motive. Particularly, the article discusses the issues of stock theft, abalone poaching, firearms offences, traffic offences, logging protest cases, pastures protection – legal principles, proposed solutions, practical issues. The article also touches on changes in law enforcement, technology and the administration of justice, as well as police interviews with suspects, DNA, video surveillance, domestic violence issues and women in courts. The paper concludes with a description of the experiences of a magistrate who lived and worked in rural NSW, discussing issues that arise as a result of inevitable relationships with accused and others in the town

Purine Transport and Metabolism in Microvascular Endothelial Cells

The microvascular endothelium serves as the barrier between the blood and perfused tissues. Proper function of the endothelium is dependent on the ability of the endothelial cells to produce nitric oxide and form tight junctions between themselves. Dysfunction occurs when stresses overwhelm the endothelial cell, with oxidative stress being a leading cause. Intracellular metabolism of purine nucleosides and nucleobases has been implicated in the production of oxidative stress. Nucleosides (e.g. adenosine) and nucleobases (e.g. hypoxanthine) are moved across cell membranes by a specialized family of proteins called equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs). We characterized primary human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (MVECs) for expression, function, and regulation of nucleoside and nucleobase transporters. It was discovered that nucleobase transport in these MVECs was mediated by a novel, purine selective transporter that was insensitive to inhibitors of ENTs, which we named equilibrative nucleobase transporter 1 (ENBT1). ENBT1 and the nucleoside selective transporter ENT1 were differentially regulated by a number of intracellular protein kinases, vascular endothelial growth factor, and oxidative stress. The role of nucleoside and nucleobase transport in the physiology of MVECs was also studied, using primary MVECs isolated from wild-type (WT) and ENT1-/- mice. Altered gene expression of adenosine metabolizing enzymes and adenosine signaling was identified and confirmed at the protein level, however, there was no compensatory changes in other nucleoside or nucleobase transporters. Coinciding with the loss of adenosine transport capabilities, ENT1-/- mice had elevated adenosine plasma concentrations compared to WT and lowered blood pressure. Unexpectedly, the ENT1-/- began to develop hind limb paralysis at about 12 months old. Post-mortem analysis revealed abnormal mineralization on the spine leading to spinal cord compression. MicroCT analysis was used to determine a time course of development, with mineralization being apparent as early as 2 months old. The pattern of mineralization resembled the human condition known as diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). Nucleoside and nucleobase transporters are important in the regulation of cardiovascular effects of purines, with special consideration to oxidative stress and blood pressure. We may have also discovered a novel role for ENT1 in the development of DISH

The influence of the strength of bone on the deformation of acetabular shells : a laboratory experiment in cadavers

Date of Acceptance: 24/08/2014 ©2015 The British Editorial Society of Bone & Joint Surgery. The authors would like to thank N. Taylor (3D Measurement Company) for his work with regard to data acquisition and processing of experimental data. We would also like to thank Dr A. Blain of Newcastle University for performing the statistical analysis The research was supported by the NIHR Newcastle Biomedical Research Centre. The authors P. Dold, M. Flohr and R. Preuss are employed by Ceramtec GmbH. Martin Bone received a salary from the joint fund. The author or one or more of the authors have received or will receive benefits for personal or professional use from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of this article. This article was primary edited by G. Scott and first proof edited by J. Scott.Peer reviewedPostprin

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the good-enough level (GEL) literature

The “good-enough level” (GEL) model proposes that people respond differentially to psychotherapy, and that the typical curvilinear “dose-response” shape of change may be an artifact of aggregation. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the GEL literature to examine (a) whether different subgroups of adults accessing psychotherapy respond to therapy at different rates and (b) whether the shape of change is linear or nonlinear. This review was preregistered on PROSPERO. Fifteen studies were synthesized (n = 114,123), with 10 included across two meta-analyses (n = 46,921; n = 41,515). Systematic searches took place using Medline, APA PsycInfo and Scopus databases. A key inclusion criterion was that cases must be stratified by treatment length to examine the GEL. In support of the GEL, there was no overall association between treatment duration and outcomes (r = −0.24, 95% confidence interval [CI: −0.70, 0.36], p = .27). Longer treatments were associated with higher baseline symptom scores (r = 0.15, 95% CI [0.08, 0.22], p < .001) and slower rates of change. Different shapes of change were also evidenced: Curvilinear responses were more often found in shorter treatments, while linear shapes were more often found in longer treatments. However, findings varied depending on methodological criteria used. Although rates of change varied in line with the GEL, most people nonetheless responded within defined boundaries as described in the dose-response literature. We therefore refer to the notion of “boundaried responsive regulation” to describe the relationship between treatment duration and outcomes

Norman Wells: The Oil Center of the Northwest Territories

In 1920, a drilling team funded by Imperial Oil discovered a petroleum deposit along the shore of the Mackenzie River north of the settlement of Fort Norman. This wilderness site later became the community of Norman Wells and its growth has been directly attributable to petroleum. The current expansion of production at Norman Wells is aimed at southern Canadian markets and a pipeline is being constructed from Norman Wells to existing pipelines in northern Alberta. As the focal point of this major resource expansion, the character, size, and functions of the community are changing. These changes are transforming Norman Wells into an important regional center.Key words: Norman Wells, petroleum developmentMots cl&eacute;s: Norman Wells, l'expoitation du p&eacute;trol

Two functionally different muscle fibre types in some salps?

This paper describes the structure and operation of the fibres in the locomotor muscle bands of several salp species. In many species, for example Thalia democratica or Pegea confoederata, all the muscle fibres of the locomotor muscle bands are similar in width and structure. In others, for example Salpa fusiformis and S. maxima, although fibre structure is similar, the marginal fibres edging the bands may be some 3-4 times the width of those in the centre of the band. In Ihlea punctata, not only is there a more striking difference in width between the marginal and central fibres of the bands, but also the two differ in structure. The marginal fibres are up to 10 times the width of the central fibres and the two differ in myofibrillar and mitochondrial content. Intracellular recordings from the fibres show that the normally compound spike potentials do not overshoot resting potentials (up to -70 mV), and are decremental. The two types of fibre may be separately activated. It is suggested that in Ihlea punctata, the wide marginal fibres may be involved in slow swimming, the central narrow fibres in `escape´ swimming.No disponibl

Polarization of macrophages toward M2 phenotype is favored by reduction in iPLA2β (group VIA phospholipase A2)*

Macrophages are important in innate and adaptive immunity. Macrophage participation in inflammation or tissue repair is directed by various extracellular signals and mediated by multiple intracellular pathways. Activation of group VIA phospholipase A2 (iPLA2β) causes accumulation of arachidonic acid, lysophospholipids, and eicosanoids that can promote inflammation and pathologic states. We examined the role of iPLA2β in peritoneal macrophage immune function by comparing wild type (WT) and iPLA2β−/− mouse macrophages. Compared with WT, iPLA2β−/− macrophages exhibited reduced proinflammatory M1 markers when classically activated. In contrast, anti-inflammatory M2 markers were elevated under naïve conditions and induced to higher levels by alternative activation in iPLA2β−/− macrophages compared with WT. Induction of eicosanoid (12-lipoxygenase (12-LO) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2))- and reactive oxygen species (NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4))-generating enzymes by classical activation pathways was also blunted in iPLA2β−/− macrophages compared with WT. The effects of inhibitors of iPLA2β, COX2, or 12-LO to reduce M1 polarization were greater than those to enhance M2 polarization. Certain lipids (lysophosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidic acid, and prostaglandin E2) recapitulated M1 phenotype in iPLA2β−/− macrophages, but none tested promoted M2 phenotype. These findings suggest that (a) lipids generated by iPLA2β and subsequently oxidized by cyclooxygenase and 12-LO favor macrophage inflammatory M1 polarization, and (b) the absence of iPLA2β promotes macrophage M2 polarization. Reducing macrophage iPLA2β activity and thereby attenuating macrophage M1 polarization might cause a shift from an inflammatory to a recovery/repair milieu