Management of the Energy Business in the Countries with Developing Economies in the Conditions of the Integration Processes

The present article describes the problems, which are connected with consequences of the ever-increasing influence of the world integration processes upon the national economies in the sphere of energy business. At the global level, this influence is evident as the dependency of governmental budgets of the oil and gas sector from commercial interests of the international corporations, which are owners of the production enterprises in the countries with developing economies. Moreover, it creates new vectors and trends of development both for entire industry and for power markets particularly. Goal of this article is to test this hypothesis on the basis of the corporate structured approach with the help of statistical and financial methods and instruments. Another goal of this article is to determine degree of influence of corporations upon national economies of developing countries in the power-generating sector. As the result, we have succeeded in improvement of the LRD (Limited Risk Distributor), which is the model of the corporate business management. This model is topical one and it is applicable for any energy companies within corporate entities (holdings and groups of companies) in the countries with developing economies. Keywords: energy business; emerging markets; corporations; LRD management business model. JEL Classifications: F23; F36; G34; O13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.778

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Illicit-Drug Solutions Used Intravenously Retains Infectivity

The stability of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strain IIIB in drug solutions was studied. The data demonstrate that HIV-1 infectivity can be retained in drug solutions (e.g. , heroin, “Khanka,” and “Vint”) for long periods of time. This fact must be taken into account when designing health education programs for the prevention of HIV and AIDS in Eastern Europe

Diversity of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Subtype A and CRF03_AB Protease in Eastern Europe: Selection of the V77I Variant and Its Rapid Spread in Injecting Drug User Populations

To characterize polymorphisms of the subtype A protease in the former Soviet Union, proviral DNA samples were obtained, with informed consent, from 119 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-positive untreated injecting drug users (IDUs) from 16 regions. All individuals studied have never been treated with antiretroviral drugs. The isolates were defined as IDU-A (n = 115) and CRF03_AB (n = 4) by using gag/env HMA/sequencing. The pro region was analyzed by using sequencing and original HIV-ProteaseChip hybridization technology. The mean of pairwise nucleotide distance between 27 pro sequences (23 IDU-A and 4 CRF03_AB) was low (1.38 ± 0.79; range, 0.00 to 3.23). All sequences contained no primary resistance mutations. However, 13 of 23 (56.5%) subtype A isolates bore the V77I substitution known as the secondary protease mutation. V77I was associated with two synonymous substitutions in triplets 31 and 78, suggesting that all V77I-bearing viruses evolved from a single source in 1997. Hybridization analysis showed that 55 of 115 (47.8%) HIV-1 isolates contained V77I, but this variant was not found in any of 31 DNA samples taken from regions, where the HIV-1 epidemic among IDUs started earlier 1997, as well as in any of four CRF03_AB isolates. The results of analysis of 12 additional samples derived from epidemiologically linked subjects showed that in all four epidemiological clusters the genotype of the donor and the recipients was the same irrespective of the route of transmission. This finding demonstrates the transmission of the V77I mutant variant, which is spreading rapidly within the circulating viral pool in Russia and Kazakhstan. The continued molecular epidemiological and virological monitoring of HIV-1 worldwide thus remains of great importance

Er-Doped Tapered Fiber Amplifier for High Peak Power Sub-ns Pulse Amplification

A tapered Er-doped fiber amplifier for high peak power pulses amplification has been developed and tested. The core diameter changed from 15.8 µm (mode field diameter (MFD) 14.5 µm) to 93 µm (MFD 40 µm) along 3.7 m maintaining single-mode performance at 1555 nm (according to the S2-method, the part of the power of high-order modes does not exceed 1.5%). The amplification of 0.9 ns pulses with spectral width below 0.04 nm up to a peak power above 200 kW (limited by self-phase modulation) with a slope pump-to-signal conversion efficiency of 15.6% was demonstrated

Er-Doped Tapered Fiber Amplifier for High Peak Power Sub-ns Pulse Amplification

A tapered Er-doped fiber amplifier for high peak power pulses amplification has been developed and tested. The core diameter changed from 15.8 µm (mode field diameter (MFD) 14.5 µm) to 93 µm (MFD 40 µm) along 3.7 m maintaining single-mode performance at 1555 nm (according to the S2-method, the part of the power of high-order modes does not exceed 1.5%). The amplification of 0.9 ns pulses with spectral width below 0.04 nm up to a peak power above 200 kW (limited by self-phase modulation) with a slope pump-to-signal conversion efficiency of 15.6% was demonstrated

Country Level Diversity of the HIV-1 Pandemic between 1990 and 2015

The global diversity of HIV forms a major challenge to the development of an HIV vaccine, as well as diagnostic, drug resistance, and viral load assays, which are essential to reaching the UNAIDS 90:90:90 targets. We sought to determine country level HIV-1 diversity globally between 1990 and 2015. We assembled a global HIV-1 molecular epidemiology database through a systematic literature search and a global survey. We searched PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), CINAHL (Ebscohost), and Global Health (Ovid) for HIV-1 subtyping studies published from 1 January 1990 to 31 December 2015. We collected additional unpublished data through a global survey of experts. Prevalence studies with original HIV-1 subtyping data collected between 1990 and 2015 were included. This resulted in a database with 383,519 subtyped HIV-1 samples from 116 countries over four time periods (1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2004, 2005 to 2009, and 2010 to 2015). We analyzed country-specific numbers of distinct HIV-1 subtypes, circulating recombinant forms (CRFs), and unique recombinant forms (URFs) in each time period. We also analyzed country-specific proportions of infections due to HIV-1 recombinants, CRFs, and URFs and calculated the Shannon diversity index for each country. Finally, we analyzed global temporal trends in each of these measures of HIV-1 diversity. We found extremely wide variation in complexity of country level HIV diversity around the world. Central African countries such as Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, and Republic of the Congo have the most diverse HIV epidemics. The number of distinct HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants was greatest in Western Europe (Spain and France) and North America (United States) (up to 39 distinct HIV-1 variants in Spain). The proportion of HIV-1 infections due to recombinants was highest in Southeast Asia (>95% of infections in Viet Nam, Cambodia, and Thailand), China, and West and Central Africa, mainly due to high proportions of CRF01_AE and CRF02_AG. Other CRFs played major roles (>75% of HIV-1 infections) in Estonia (CRF06_cpx), Iran (CRF35_AD), and Algeria (CRF06_cpx). The highest proportions of URFs (>30%) were found in Myanmar, Republic of the Congo, and Argentina. Global temporal analysis showed consistent increases over time in country level numbers of distinct HIV-1 variants and proportions of CRFs and URFs, leading to increases in country level HIV-1 diversity. Our study provides epidemiological evidence that the HIV pandemic is diversifying at country level and highlights the increasing challenge to prevention and treatment efforts. HIV-1 molecular epidemiological surveillance needs to be continued and improved. IMPORTANCE This is the first study to analyze global country level HIV-1 diversity from 1990 to 2015. We found extremely wide variation in complexity of country level HIV diversity around the world. Central African countries have the most diverse HIV epidemics. The number of distinct HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants was greatest in Western Europe and North America. The proportion of HIV-1 infections due to recombinants was highest in South-East Asia, China, and West and Central Africa. The highest proportions of URFs were found in Myanmar, Republic of the Congo, and Argentina. Our study provides epidemiological evidence that the HIV pandemic is diversifying at country level and highlights the increasing challenge to HIV vaccine development and diagnostic, drug resistance, and viral load assays

Global and regional molecular epidemiology of HIV-1, 1990–2015: a systematic review, global survey, and trend analysis

International audienceGlobal genetic diversity of HIV-1 is a major challenge to the development of HIV vaccines. We aimed to estimate the regional and global distribution of HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants during 1990–2015.We searched PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), CINAHL (Ebscohost), and Global Health (Ovid) for HIV-1 subtyping studies published between Jan 1, 1990, and Dec 31, 2015. We collected additional unpublished HIV-1 subtyping data through a global survey. We included prevalence studies with HIV-1 subtyping data collected during 1990–2015. We grouped countries into 14 regions and analysed data for four time periods (1990–99, 2000–04, 2005–09, and 2010–15). The distribution of HIV-1 subtypes, circulating recombinant forms (CRFs), and unique recombinant forms (URFs) in individual countries was weighted according to the UNAIDS estimates of the number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in each country to generate regional and global estimates of HIV-1 diversity in each time period. The primary outcome was the number of samples designated as HIV-1 subtypes A, B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, CRFs, and URFs. The systematic review is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42017067164.This systematic review and global survey yielded 2203 datasets with 383 519 samples from 116 countries in 1990–2015. Globally, subtype C accounted for 46·6% (16 280 897/34 921 639 of PLHIV) of all HIV-1 infections in 2010–15. Subtype B was responsible for 12·1% (4 235 299/34 921 639) of infections, followed by subtype A (10·3%; 3 587 003/34 921 639), CRF02_AG (7·7%; 2 705 110/34 921 639), CRF01_AE (5·3%; 1 840 982/34 921 639), subtype G (4·6%; 1 591 276/34 921 639), and subtype D (2·7%; 926 255/34 921 639). Subtypes F, H, J, and K combined accounted for 0·9% (311 332/34 921 639) of infections. Other CRFs accounted for 3·7% (1 309 082/34 921 639), bringing the proportion of all CRFs to 16·7% (5 844 113/34 921 639). URFs constituted 6·1% (2 134 405/34 921 639), resulting in recombinants accounting for 22·8% (7 978 517/34 921 639) of all global HIV-1 infections. The distribution of HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants changed over time in countries, regions, and globally. At a global level during 2005–15, subtype B increased, subtypes A and D were stable, and subtypes C and G and CRF02_AG decreased. CRF01_AE, other CRFs, and URFs increased, leading to a consistent increase in the global proportion of recombinants over time.Global and regional HIV diversity is complex and evolving, and is a major challenge to HIV vaccine development. Surveillance of the global molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 remains crucial for the design, testing, and implementation of HIV vaccines

Global and regional molecular epidemiology of HIV-1, 1990-2015: a systematic review, global survey, and trend analysis

BACKGROUND: Global genetic diversity of HIV-1 is a major challenge to the development of HIV vaccines. We aimed to estimate the regional and global distribution of HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants during 1990-2015. METHODS: We searched PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), CINAHL (Ebscohost), and Global Health (Ovid) for HIV-1 subtyping studies published between Jan 1, 1990, and Dec 31, 2015. We collected additional unpublished HIV-1 subtyping data through a global survey. We included prevalence studies with HIV-1 subtyping data collected during 1990-2015. We grouped countries into 14 regions and analysed data for four time periods (1990-99, 2000-04, 2005-09, and 2010-15). The distribution of HIV-1 subtypes, circulating recombinant forms (CRFs), and unique recombinant forms (URFs) in individual countries was weighted according to the UNAIDS estimates of the number of people living with HIV (PLHIV) in each country to generate regional and global estimates of HIV-1 diversity in each time period. The primary outcome was the number of samples designated as HIV-1 subtypes A, B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, CRFs, and URFs. The systematic review is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42017067164. FINDINGS: This systematic review and global survey yielded 2203 datasets with 383 519 samples from 116 countries in 1990-2015. Globally, subtype C accounted for 46·6% (16 280 897/34 921 639 of PLHIV) of all HIV-1 infections in 2010-15. Subtype B was responsible for 12·1% (4 235 299/34 921 639) of infections, followed by subtype A (10·3%; 3 587 003/34 921 639), CRF02_AG (7·7%; 2 705 110/34 921 639), CRF01_AE (5·3%; 1 840 982/34 921 639), subtype G (4·6%; 1 591 276/34 921 639), and subtype D (2·7%; 926 255/34 921 639). Subtypes F, H, J, and K combined accounted for 0·9% (311 332/34 921 639) of infections. Other CRFs accounted for 3·7% (1 309 082/34 921 639), bringing the proportion of all CRFs to 16·7% (5 844 113/34 921 639). URFs constituted 6·1% (2 134 405/34 921 639), resulting in recombinants accounting for 22·8% (7 978 517/34 921 639) of all global HIV-1 infections. The distribution of HIV-1 subtypes and recombinants changed over time in countries, regions, and globally. At a global level during 2005-15, subtype B increased, subtypes A and D were stable, and subtypes C and G and CRF02_AG decreased. CRF01_AE, other CRFs, and URFs increased, leading to a consistent increase in the global proportion of recombinants over time. INTERPRETATION: Global and regional HIV diversity is complex and evolving, and is a major challenge to HIV vaccine development. Surveillance of the global molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 remains crucial for the design, testing, and implementation of HIV vaccines. FUNDING: None.status: publishe