VEGF guides angiogenic sprouting utilizing endothelial tip cell filopodia

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) is a major regulator of blood vessel formation and function. it controls several processes in endothelial cells, such as proliferation, survival, and migration, but it is not known how these are coordinately regulated to result in more complex morphogenetic events, such as tubular sprouting, fusion, and network formation. We show here that VEGF-A controls angiogenic sprouting in the early postnatal retina by guiding filopodial extension from specialized endothelial cells situated at the tips of the vascular sprouts. The tip cells respond to VEGF-A only by guided migration; the proliferative response to VEGF-A occurs in the sprout stalks. These two cellular responses are both mediated by agonistic activity of VEGF-A on VEGF receptor 2. Whereas tip cell migration depends on a gradient of VEGF-A, proliferation is regulated by its concentration. Thus, vessel patterning during retinal angiogenesis depends on the balance between two different qualities of the extracellular VEGF-A distribution, which regulate distinct cellular responses in defined populations of endothelial cells

Specific fibroblast subpopulations and neuronal structures provide local sources of Vegfc-processing components during zebrafish lymphangiogenesis

Proteolytical processing of the growth factor VEGFC through the concerted activity of CCBE1 and ADAMTS3 is required for lymphatic development to occur. How these factors act together in time and space, and which cell types produce these factors is not understood. Here we assess the function of Adamts3 and the related protease Adamts14 during zebrafish lymphangiogenesis and show both proteins to be able to process Vegfc. Only the simultaneous loss of both protein functions results in lymphatic defects identical to vegfc loss-of-function situations. Cell transplantation experiments demonstrate neuronal structures and/or fibroblasts to constitute cellular sources not only for both proteases but also for Ccbe1 and Vegfc. We further show that this locally restricted Vegfc maturation is needed to trigger normal lymphatic sprouting and directional migration. Our data provide a single-cell resolution model for establishing secretion and processing hubs for Vegfc during developmental lymphangiogenesis

Cell types in the mouse cortex and hippocampus revealed by single-cell RNA-seq

The mammalian cerebral cortex supports cognitive functions such as sensorimotor integration, memory, and social behaviors. Normal brain function relies on a diverse set of differentiated cell types, including neurons, glia, and vasculature. Here, we have used large-scale single-cell RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to classify cells in the mouse somatosensory cortex and hippocampal CA1 region. We found 47 molecularly distinct subclasses, comprising all known major cell types in the cortex. We identified numerous marker genes, which allowed alignment with known cell types, morphology, and location. We found a layer I interneuron expressing Pax6 and a distinct postmitotic oligodendrocyte subclass marked by Itpr2. Across the diversity of cortical cell types, transcription factors formed a complex, layered regulatory code, suggesting a mechanism for the maintenance of adult cell type identity

Brain Abnormalities and Glioma-Like Lesions in Mice Overexpressing the Long Isoform of PDGF-A in Astrocytic Cells

BACKGROUND: Deregulation of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) signaling is a hallmark of malignant glioma. Two alternatively spliced PDGF-A mRNAs have been described, corresponding to a long (L) and a short (S) isoform of PDGF-A. In contrast to PDGF-A(S), the PDGF-A(L) isoform has a lysine and arginine rich carboxy-terminal extension that acts as an extracellular matrix retention motif. However, the exact role of PDGF-A(L) and how it functionally differs from the shorter isoform is not well understood.\ud \ud METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We overexpressed PDGF-A(L) as a transgene under control of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) promoter in the mouse brain. This directs expression of the transgene to astrocytic cells and GFAP expressing neural stem cells throughout the developing and adult central nervous system. Transgenic mice exhibited a phenotype with enlarged skull at approximately 6-16 weeks of age and they died between 1.5 months and 2 years of age. We detected an increased number of undifferentiated cells in all areas of transgene expression, such as in the subependymal zone around the lateral ventricle and in the cerebellar medulla. The cells stained positive for Pdgfr-α, Olig2 and NG2 but this population did only partially overlap with cells positive for Gfap and the transgene reporter. Interestingly, a few mice presented with overt neoplastic glioma-like lesions composed of both Olig2 and Gfap positive cell populations and with microvascular proliferation, in a wild-type p53 background.\ud \ud CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show that PDGF-A(L) can induce accumulation of immature cells in the mouse brain. The strong expression of NG2, Pdgfr-α and Olig2 in PDGF-A(L) brains suggests that a fraction of these cells are oligodendrocyte progenitors. In addition, accumulation of fluid in the subarachnoid space and skull enlargement indicate that an increased intracranial pressure contributed to the observed lethality.\ud \u

GPIHBP1 expression in gliomas promotes utilization of lipoprotein-derived nutrients

GPIHBP1, a GPI-anchored protein of capillary endothelial cells, binds lipoprotein lipase (LPL) within the subendothelial spaces and shuttles it to the capillary lumen. The GPIHBP1-bound LPL is essential for the margination of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs) along capillaries, allowing the lipolytic processing of TRLs to proceed. In peripheral tissues, the intravascular processing of TRLs by the GPIHBP1-LPL complex is crucial for generating lipid nutrients for adjacent parenchymal cells. GPIHBP1 is absent in capillaries of the brain, which uses glucose for fuel; however, GPIHBP1 is expressed in capillaries of mouse and human gliomas. Importantly, the GPIHBP1 in glioma capillaries captures locally produced LPL. We document, by NanoSIMS imaging, that TRLs marginate along glioma capillaries and that there is uptake of TRL-derived lipid nutrients by surrounding glioma cells. Thus, GPIHBP1 expression in gliomas facilitates TRL processing and provides a source of lipid nutrients for glioma cells

Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β, carrying the activating mutation D849N, accelerates the establishment of B16 melanoma

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB and PDGF receptor (PDGFR)-β are mainly expressed in the developing vasculature, where PDGF-BB is produced by endothelial cells and PDGFR-β is expressed by mural cells, including pericytes. PDGF-BB is produced by most types of solid tumors, and PDGF receptor signaling participates in various processes, including autocrine stimulation of tumor cell growth, recruitment of tumor stroma fibroblasts, and stimulation of tumor angiogenesis. Furthermore, PDGF-BB-producing tumors are characterized by increased pericyte abundance and accelerated tumor growth. Thus, there is a growing interest in the development of tumor treatment strategies by blocking PDGF/PDGFR function. We have recently generated a mouse model carrying an activated PDGFR-β by replacing the highly conserved aspartic acid residue (D) 849 in the activating loop with asparagine (N). This allowed us to investigate, in an orthotopic tumor model, the role of increased stromal PDGFR-β signaling in tumor-stroma interactions.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>B16 melanoma cells lacking PDGFR-β expression and either mock-transfected or engineered to express PDGF-BB, were injected alone or in combination with matrigel into mice carrying the activated PDGFR-β (D849N) and into wild type mice. The tumor growth rate was followed and the vessel status of tumors, i.e. total vessel area/tumor, average vessel surface and pericyte density of vessels, was analyzed after resection.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Tumors grown in mice carrying an activated PDGFR-β were established earlier than those in wild-type mice. In this early phase, the total vessel area and the average vessel surface were higher in tumors grown in mice carrying the activated PDGFR-β (D849N) compared to wild-type mice, whereas we did not find a significant difference in the number of tumor vessels and the pericyte abundance around tumor vessels between wild type and mutant mice. At later phases of tumor progression, no significant difference in tumor growth rate was observed between wild type mice and mutant mice, although the pericyte coverage was higher around tumor vessels from mutant mice.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our findings suggest that the activated PDGFR-β (D849N) in the host animal increased the total vessel area and the average vessel surface even in PDGF-negative tumors, resulting in a shorter lag phase during tumor establishment.</p

Selective αv integrin depletion identifies a core, targetable molecular pathway that regulates fibrosis across solid organs

Myofibroblasts are the major source of extracellular matrix components that accumulate during tissue fibrosis, and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are the major source of myofibroblasts in the liver. To date, robust systems to genetically manipulate these cells have not existed. We report that Pdgfrb-Cre inactivates genes in murine HSCs with high efficiency. We used this system to delete the αv integrin subunit because of the suggested role of multiple αv integrins as central mediators of fibrosis in multiple organs. Depletion of the αv integrin subunit in HSCs protected mice from CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis, whereas global loss of αvβ3, αvβ5 or αvβ6 or conditional loss of αvβ8 on HSCs did not. Pdgfrb-Cre effectively targeted myofibroblasts in multiple organs, and depletion of αv integrins using this system was also protective in models of pulmonary and renal fibrosis. Critically, pharmacological blockade of αv integrins by a novel small molecule (CWHM 12) attenuated both liver and lung fibrosis, even when administered after fibrosis was established. These data identify a core pathway that regulates fibrosis, and suggest that pharmacological targeting of all αv integrins may have clinical utility in the treatment of patients with a broad range of fibrotic diseases

Single-Cell Analysis of Blood-Brain Barrier Response to Pericyte Loss

Rationale: Pericytes are capillary mural cells playing a role in stabilizing newly formed blood vessels during development and tissue repair. Loss of pericytes has been described in several brain disorders, and genetically induced pericyte deficiency in the brain leads to increased macromolecular leakage across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, the molecular details of the endothelial response to pericyte deficiency remain elusive. Objective: To map the transcriptional changes in brain endothelial cells resulting from lack of pericyte contact at single-cell level, and to correlate them with regional heterogeneities in BBB function and vascular phenotype. Methods and Results: We reveal transcriptional, morphological and functional consequences of pericyte absence for brain endothelial cells using a combination of methodologies, including single-cell RNA sequencing, tracer analyses and immunofluorescent detection of protein expression in pericyte-deficient adult Pdgfbret/ret mice. We find that endothelial cells without pericyte contact retain a general BBB-specific gene expression profile, however, they acquire a venous-shifted molecular pattern and become transformed regarding the expression of numerous growth factors and regulatory proteins. Adult Pdgfbret/ret brains display ongoing angiogenic sprouting without concomitant cell proliferation providing unique insights into the endothelial tip cell transcriptome. We also reveal heterogeneous modes of pericyte-deficient BBB impairment, where hotspot leakage sites display arteriolar-shifted identity and pinpoint putative BBB regulators. By testing the causal involvement of some of these using reverse genetics, we uncover a reinforcing role for angiopoietin 2 at the BBB. Conclusions: By elucidating the complexity of endothelial response to pericyte deficiency at cellular resolution, our study provides insight into the importance of brain pericytes for endothelial arterio-venous zonation, angiogenic quiescence and a limited set of BBB functions. The BBB-reinforcing role of ANGPT2 is paradoxical given its wider role as TIE2 receptor antagonist and may suggest a unique and context-dependent function of ANGPT2 in the brain

Scalable In Situ Hybridization on Tissue Arrays for Validation of Novel Cancer and Tissue-Specific Biomarkers

Tissue localization of gene expression is increasingly important for accurate interpretation of large scale datasets from expression and mutational analyses. To this end, we have (1) developed a robust and scalable procedure for generation of mRNA hybridization probes, providing >95% first-pass success rate in probe generation to any human target gene and (2) adopted an automated staining procedure for analyses of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues and tissue microarrays. The in situ mRNA and protein expression patterns for genes with known as well as unknown tissue expression patterns were analyzed in normal and malignant tissues to assess procedure specificity and whether in situ hybridization can be used for validating novel antibodies. We demonstrate concordance between in situ transcript and protein expression patterns of the well-known pathology biomarkers KRT17, CHGA, MKI67, PECAM1 and VIL1, and provide independent validation for novel antibodies to the biomarkers BRD1, EZH2, JUP and SATB2. The present study provides a foundation for comprehensive in situ gene set or transcriptome analyses of human normal and tumor tissues