T cells can mediate viral clearance from ependyma but not from brain parenchyma in a major histocompatibility class I- and perforin-independent manner

Viral infection of the central nervous system can lead to disability and death. Yet the majority of viral infections with central nervous system involvement resolve with only mild clinical manifestations, if any. This is generally attributed to efficient elimination of the infection from the brain coverings, i.e. the meninges, ependyma and chorioplexus, which are the primary targets of haematogeneous viral spread. How the immune system is able to purge these structures from viral infection with only minimal detrimental effects is still poorly understood. In the present work we studied how an attenuated lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus can be cleared from the central nervous system in the absence of overt disease. We show that elimination of the virus from brain ependyma, but not from brain parenchyma, could be achieved by a T cell-dependent mechanism operating independently of major histocompatibility class I antigens and perforin. Considering that cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity is a leading cause of viral immunopathology and tissue damage, our findings may explain why the most common viral intruders of the central nervous system rarely represent a serious threat to our healt

Secreted IgM deficiency leads to increased BCR signaling that results in abnormal splenic B cell development.

Mice lacking secreted IgM (sIgM -/-) antibodies display abnormal splenic B cell development, which results in increased marginal zone and decreased follicular B cell numbers. However, the mechanism by which sIgM exhibit this effect is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that B cells in sIgM -/- mice display increased B cell receptor (BCR) signaling as judged by increased levels of phosphorylated Bruton's tyrosine kinase (pBtk), phosphorylated Spleen tyrosine kinase (pSyk), and nuclear receptor Nur77. Low dosage treatment with the pBtk inhibitor Ibrutinib reversed the altered B cell development in the spleen of sIgM -/- mice, suggesting that sIgM regulate splenic B cell differentiation by decreasing BCR signaling. Mechanistically, we show that B cells, which express BCRs specific to hen egg lysozyme (HEL) display diminished responsiveness to HEL stimulation in presence of soluble anti-HEL IgM antibodies. Our data identify sIgM as negative regulators of BCR signaling and suggest that they can act as decoy receptors for self-antigens that are recognized by membrane bound BCRs

Innate and adaptive immune control of genetically engineered live-attenuated arenavirus vaccine prototypes

Arenaviruses such as Lassa virus (LASV) cause significant morbidity and mortality in endemic areas. Using a glycoprotein (GP) exchange strategy, we have recently developed live-attenuated arenavirus vaccine prototypes (rLCMV/VSVG) based on lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), a close relative of LASV. rLCMV/VSVG induced long-term CD8+ T cell immunity against wild-type virus challenge and exhibited a stably attenuated phenotype in vivo. Here we elucidated the innate and adaptive immune requirements for the control of rLCMV/VSVG. Infection of RAG−/− mice resulted in persisting viral RNA in blood but not in overt viremia. The latter was only found in mice lacking both RAG and IFN type I receptor. Conversely, absence of IFN type II signaling or NK cells on an RAG-deficient background had only minor effects on vaccine virus load or none at all. rLCMV/VSVG infection of wild-type mice induced less type I IFN than did wild-type LCMV, and type I as well as type II IFNs were dispensable for the induction of virus-specific memory CD8 T cells and virus-neutralizing antibodies by rLCMV/VSVG. In conclusion, the adaptive immune systems are essential for elimination of rLCMV/VSVG, and type I but not type II IFN plays a major contributive role in lowering rLCMV/VSVG loads in vivo, attesting to the attenuation profile of the vaccine. Nevertheless, IFNs are not required for the induction of potent vaccine responses. These results provide a better understanding of the immunobiology of rLCMV/VSVG and will contribute to the further development of GP exchange vaccines for combating arenaviral hemorrhagic fever

Envelope Exchange for the Generation of Live-Attenuated Arenavirus Vaccines

Arenaviruses such as Lassa fever virus cause significant mortality in endemic areas and represent potential bioterrorist weapons. The occurrence of arenaviral hemorrhagic fevers is largely confined to Third World countries with a limited medical infrastructure, and therefore live-attenuated vaccines have long been sought as a method of choice for prevention. Yet their rational design and engineering have been thwarted by technical limitations. In addition, viral genes had not been identified that are needed to cause disease but can be deleted or substituted to generate live-attenuated vaccine strains. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, the prototype arenavirus, induces cell-mediated immunity against Lassa fever virus, but its safety for humans is unclear and untested. Using this virus model, we have developed the necessary methodology to efficiently modify arenavirus genomes and have exploited these techniques to identify an arenaviral Achilles' heel suitable for targeting in vaccine design. Reverse genetic exchange of the viral glycoprotein for foreign glycoproteins created attenuated vaccine strains that remained viable although unable to cause disease in infected mice. This phenotype remained stable even after extensive propagation in immunodeficient hosts. Nevertheless, the engineered viruses induced T cell–mediated immunity protecting against overwhelming systemic infection and severe liver disease upon wild-type virus challenge. Protection was established within 3 to 7 d after immunization and lasted for approximately 300 d. The identification of an arenaviral Achilles' heel demonstrates that the reverse genetic engineering of live-attenuated arenavirus vaccines is feasible. Moreover, our findings offer lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus or other arenaviruses expressing foreign glycoproteins as promising live-attenuated arenavirus vaccine candidates

Characterization of host proteins interacting with the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus L protein

RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) play a key role in the life cycle of RNA viruses and impact their immunobiology. The arenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) strain Clone 13 provides a benchmark model for studying chronic infection. A major genetic determinant for its ability to persist maps to a single amino acid exchange in the viral L protein, which exhibits RdRp activity, yet its functional consequences remain elusive. To unravel the L protein interactions with the host proteome, we engineered infectious L protein-tagged LCMV virions by reverse genetics. A subsequent mass-spectrometric analysis of L protein pulldowns from infected human cells revealed a comprehensive network of interacting host proteins. The obtained LCMV L protein interactome was bioinformatically integrated with known host protein interactors of RdRps from other RNA viruses, emphasizing interconnected modules of human proteins. Functional characterization of selected interactors highlighted proviral (DDX3X) as well as antiviral (NKRF, TRIM21) host factors. To corroborate these findings, we infected Trim21-/-mice with LCMV and found impaired virus control in chronic infection. These results provide insights into the complex interactions of the arenavirus LCMV and other viral RdRps with the host proteome and contribute to a better molecular understanding of how chronic viruses interact with their host

A Strategy for Resolving Europe\u27s Problem Loans

This discussion note uses a new survey of European country authorities and banks to examine the structural obstacles that discourage banks from addressing their problem loans. A three pillared strategy is advocated to remedy the situation, comprising: (i) tightened supervisory policies, (ii) insolvency reforms, and (iii) the development of distressed debt market

ACE2 is the critical in vivo receptor for SARS-CoV-2 in a novel COVID-19 mouse model with TNF-and IFN?-driven immunopathology

Despite tremendous progress in the understanding of COVID-19, mechanistic insight into immunological, disease-driving factors remains limited. We generated maVie16, a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2, by serial passaging of a human isolate. In silico modeling revealed how only three Spike mutations of maVie16 enhanced interaction with murine ACE2. maVie16 induced profound pathology in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice, and the resulting mouse COVID-19 (mCOVID-19) replicated critical aspects of human disease, including early lymphopenia, pulmonary immune cell infiltration, pneumonia, and specific adaptive immunity. Inhibition of the proinflammatory cyto-kines IFN? and TNF substantially reduced immunopathology. Importantly, genetic ACE2-deficiency completely prevented mCOVID-19 development. Finally, inhalation therapy with recombinant ACE2 fully protected mice from mCOVID-19, revealing a novel and efficient treatment. Thus, we here present maVie16 as a new tool to model COVID-19 for the discovery of new therapies and show that disease severity is determined by cytokine-driven immunopathology and critically dependent on ACE2 in vivo. © Gawish et al

Complex Interplay Between MAZR and Runx3 Regulates the Generation of Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte and Memory T Cells

The BTB zinc finger transcription factor MAZR (also known as PATZ1) controls, partially in synergy with the transcription factor Runx3, the development of CD8 lineage T cells. Here we explored the role of MAZR as well as combined activities of MAZR/Runx3 during cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) and memory CD8(+) T cell differentiation. In contrast to the essential role of Runx3 for CTL effector function, the deletion of MAZR had a mild effect on the generation of CTLs in vitro. However, a transcriptome analysis demonstrated that the combined deletion of MAZR and Runx3 resulted in much more widespread downregulation of CTL signature genes compared to single Runx3 deletion, indicating that MAZR partially compensates for loss of Runx3 in CTLs. Moreover, in line with the findings made in vitro, the analysis of CTL responses to LCMV infection revealed that MAZR and Runx3 cooperatively regulate the expression of CD8 alpha, Granzyme B and perforin in vivo. Interestingly, while memory T cell differentiation is severely impaired in Runx3-deficient mice, the deletion of MAZR leads to an enlargement of the long-lived memory subset and also partially restored the differentiation defect caused by loss of Runx3. This indicates distinct functions of MAZR and Runx3 in the generation of memory T cell subsets, which is in contrast to their cooperative roles in CTLs. Together, our study demonstrates complex interplay between MAZR and Runx3 during CTL and memory T cell differentiation, and provides further insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment of CTL and memory T cell pools

Menschen schützen und unterstützen: warum Solidarität weiterhin gefragt ist in der Pandemie

Seit Beginn der Pandemie hat sich unser Fachwissen sowohl über die Ausbreitung des Virus als auch über Präventionsmaßnahmen vervielfacht. Tests, Impfungen und Therapien sind verfügbar und viele Fragestellungen durch die Erkenntnisse der letzten Jahre gelöst worden. Trotzdem bleibt die Entscheidungsfindung für Interventionen im Sinne der öffentlichen Gesundheit weiterhin eine Herausforderung. Dafür kann die unabhängige und interdisziplinäre Wissenschaft weiterhin wichtige Impulse setzen und Perspektiven liefern. Dieses Papier stellt einige zentrale Punkte zusammen, die aus einem intensiven Diskursprozess entstanden sind, der in den letzten Monaten unter den angeführten Expert*innen und Wissenschafter*innen verschiedener Disziplinen stattgefunden hat. Es besteht der Grundkonsens, dass eine gesundheitspolitische und ethische Notwendigkeit besteht, den Schutz jener Menschen im Blick zu behalten, welche anfälliger für schwere COVID-19 Krankheitsverläufe, als auch Long Covid sind, sowie deren Umfeld und generell im Hinblick auf Gesundheitsfragen vorsichtig agierende Personen. Dieses Papier soll Bewusstsein für die Thematik stärken, und Entscheidungsträger:innen sensibilisieren und darin unterstützen, diese Personenkreise in ihren Überlegungen im Blick zu behalten

Circulating and Tissue-Resident CD4+ T Cells With Reactivity to Intestinal Microbiota Are Abundant in Healthy Individuals and Function Is Altered During Inflammation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Interactions between commensal microbes and the immune system are tightly regulated and maintain intestinal homeostasis, but little is known about these interactions in humans. We investigated responses of human CD4+ T cells to the intestinal microbiota. We measured the abundance of T cells in circulation and intestinal tissues that respond to intestinal microbes and determined their clonal diversity. We also assessed their functional phenotypes and effects on intestinal resident cell populations, and studied alterations in microbe-reactive T cells in patients with chronic intestinal inflammation. METHODS: We collected samples of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and intestinal tissues from healthy individuals (controls, n = 13-30) and patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (n = 119; 59 with ulcerative colitis and 60 with Crohn's disease). We used 2 independent assays (CD154 detection and carboxy-fluorescein succinimidyl ester dilution assays) and 9 intestinal bacterial species (Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp lactis, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Bacteroides vulgatus, Roseburia intestinalis, Ruminococcus obeum, Salmonella typhimurium, and Clostridium difficile) to quantify, expand, and characterize microbe-reactive CD4+ T cells. We sequenced T-cell receptor Vβ genes in expanded microbe-reactive T-cell lines to determine their clonal diversity. We examined the effects of microbe-reactive CD4+ T cells on intestinal stromal and epithelial cell lines. Cytokines, chemokines, and gene expression patterns were measured by flow cytometry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Circulating and gut-resident CD4+ T cells from controls responded to bacteria at frequencies of 40-4000 per million for each bacterial species tested. Microbiota-reactive CD4+ T cells were mainly of a memory phenotype, present in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and intestinal tissue, and had a diverse T-cell receptor Vβ repertoire. These cells were functionally heterogeneous, produced barrier-protective cytokines, and stimulated intestinal stromal and epithelial cells via interleukin 17A, interferon gamma, and tumor necrosis factor. In patients with inflammatory bowel diseases, microbiota-reactive CD4+ T cells were reduced in the blood compared with intestine; T-cell responses that we detected had an increased frequency of interleukin 17A production compared with responses of T cells from blood or intestinal tissues of controls. CONCLUSIONS: In an analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and intestinal tissues from patients with inflammatory bowel diseases vs controls, we found that reactivity to intestinal bacteria is a normal property of the human CD4+ T-cell repertoire, and does not necessarily indicate disrupted interactions between immune cells and the commensal microbiota. T-cell responses to commensals might support intestinal homeostasis, by producing barrier-protective cytokines and providing a large pool of T cells that react to pathogens