Creator, Schemer, Nurturer, Deceiver: The Case of Gaia as Cultural Continuum in Greek Myth and Iconography

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία αποτελεί ανάλυση και αξιολόγηση του μύθου και της εικονογραφίας της Ελληνίδας θεάς Γαίας (Γαĩα, Γῆ, Gê) Μητέρας/Γης με κύριο άξονα την Αρχαϊκή και Κλασική περίοδο. Στην ελληνική λογοτεχνία ως κεντρική πρωταγωνίστρια του μύθου της καταγωγής και θεά της εύφορης ευημερίας, με την πάροδο του χρόνου, ο ρόλος της Γαίας στον ελληνικό κόσμο περιθωριοποιείται. Στη λατρευτική σφαίρα, η λατρεία της θεάς μειώνεται επίσης, ωστόσο ο μύθος και η εικονογραφία της Γαίας συνεχίζουν να ζουν μια τόσο μεγάλη χρονική περίοδο. Ο μύθος και η εικονογραφία της Γαίας και η συσχέτισή της στο ιστορικό πλαίσιο του 6ου-4ου αι. π.Χ. Η Αθήνα ως αρχέγονη θεότητα και θεμέλιο της προγονικής εξουσίας είναι συμβολική καθώς η Αθήνα εξελίσσεται σε μια μεγάλη πόλη-κράτος. Μετά τον 4ο αι. π.Χ., παρόλο που η σημασία της ελαχιστοποιείται και ο λατρευτικός της ρόλος στην Αθήνα μειώνεται, υποστηρίζω ότι συνεχίζει να χαρακτηρίζεται στο μύθο και την εικονογραφία ως η δυαδική ενσάρκωση της φύσης εναντίον της ανατροφής, του κανόνα και της τάξης/χάους και της αταξίας και ως θεμέλιο για που οι άλλοι θεοί και θεές εμφανίζονται στη συνέχεια της γόνιμης ευημερίας στο αστικό περιβάλλον. Για σύγκριση, εξετάζω τη σημασία της ένταξης της Γαίας στην εικονογραφία στο ιστορικό πλαίσιο και το πλαίσιο της ανάπτυξης της νέας πόλης-κράτους της Αθήνας τον 6ο-4ο αι. π.Χ. με τις μαρτυρίες των λογοτεχνικών της έργων σε συνδυασμό με τα επιγραφικά, εικονογραφικά και αρχαιολογικά στοιχεία του μύθου, της λατρείας και της εικονογραφίας της Γαίας σε αυτό το χρονικό πλαίσιο. Εφαρμόζω επίσης την ανθρωπολογική θεωρία ως προσέγγιση για το πώς να δούμε τον μύθο και την εικονογραφία της Γαίας μέσα στο ιστορικό της πλαίσιο. Δίνω επίσης προσοχή στο βάθος και το εύρος της επιρροής και του μεταβαλλόμενου ρόλου της Γαίας στην αρχαιότητα. Ποια είναι η σημασία της γονιμότητας στο πλαίσιο μιας αναπτυσσόμενης πόλης-κράτους της Αθήνας; Γιατί δεν έχουμε άφθονα στοιχεία για τη λατρεία της Γαίας, ωστόσο η επιρροή της στο μύθο και την εικονογραφία εμφανίζεται για τόσο μεγάλο χρονικό διάστημα; Αυτά είναι μερικά από τα ερωτήματα και τους στόχους που διερευνώ σε αυτή τη διατριβή. Συμπεραίνω ότι η Γαία, ως προσωποποίηση της Γης, είναι μια περίπτωση πολιτισμικής συνέχειας. Λόγω του φυσικού τοπίου με το οποίο συνδέεται και συνεχίζει να αντέχει, περισσότερο από τα ανθρωπογενή μνημεία, η Γαία είναι ένα θεμέλιο για τη διατήρηση της μνήμης των παλιών τρόπων τόσο στην εικονογραφία όσο και στο μύθο. Υποστηρίζω ότι ο ρόλος της Γαίας στην ελληνική λατρεία και η θέση της στη λατρευτική σφαίρα παράλληλα με τη διχοτόμηση της πολιτιστικής της συνέχειας στο μύθο και την εικονογραφία ήταν αποτέλεσμα αστικοποίησης και κοινωνικών μεταρρυθμίσεων, τόσο για τη διατήρηση της μνήμης όσο και για την εισαγωγή περισσότερων αστικών εικόνων και εικόνων γονιμότητας , δύναμη και νίκη.This thesis is an analysis and assessment of the myth and iconography of the Greek goddess Gaia (Γαĩα, Γῆ, Gê) Mother/Earth with primary focus on the Archaic and Classical period. In Greek literature as the central protagonist in the myth of origins and goddess of fertile prosperity, over time, Gaia’s role in the Greek world becomes marginalized. In the cultic sphere, the veneration of the goddess also diminishes, yet the myth and iconography of Gaia continues on to live such a lengthy time period. Gaia’s myth and iconography and its association within the historical framework of the 6th-4th c BCE Athens as a primordial divinity and the foundation of ancestral power is symbolic as Athens evolves into a great city state. After the 4th c. BCE even though her importance is minimized and her cultic role in Athens diminishes, I argue she continues to be characterized in myth and iconography as the dualistic embodiment of nature vs. nurture, of rule and order/chaos and disorder, and as a foundation for which the other gods and goddesses appear in the continuum of fertile prosperity in the urban setting. To compare, I examine the importance of inclusion of Gaia in iconography within the historical context and framework of the development of the new city state of Athens in the 6th-4thth c BCE with the evidence of its literary works in conjunction with the epigraphical, iconographical and archaeological evidence of Gaia’s myth, cult and iconography within this time frame. I also apply anthropological theory as an approach on how to view Gaia’s myth and iconography within its historical context. I also give attention to Gaia’s depth and breadth of influence and changing role in antiquity. What is the significance of fertility within the framework of a developing Athens city state? Why do we not have abundant evidence for Gaia’s cult yet her influence in myth and iconography appear for such a lengthy amount of time? These are some of the questions and objectives I explore in this thesis. I conclude that Gaia, as the personification of Earth, is a case of cultural continuum. Due to the natural landscape in which she is associated with that continues to endure, more so than man made monuments, Gaia is a foundation for memory preservation of the old ways in both iconography and myth. I argue that the role of Gaia in Greek cult and her place in the cultic sphere alongside the dichotomy of her cultural continuum in myth and iconography was a result of urbanization and social reforms, both to preserve memory and introduce more urban icons and images of fertility, power, and victory

Bacterial-type oxygen detoxification and iron-sulfur cluster assembly in amoebal relict mitochondria.

addresses: School of Biological Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, UK.types: Journal Article; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tOnline open article. This is a copy of an article published in Cellular Microbiology © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Cellular Microbiology is available online at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1462-5822The assembly of vital reactive iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cofactors in eukaryotes is mediated by proteins inherited from the original mitochondrial endosymbiont. Uniquely among eukaryotes, however, Entamoeba and Mastigamoeba lack such mitochondrial-type Fe-S cluster assembly proteins and possess instead an analogous bacterial-type system acquired by lateral gene transfer. Here we demonstrate, using immunomicroscopy and biochemical methods, that beyond their predicted cytosolic distribution the bacterial-type Fe-S cluster assembly proteins NifS and NifU have been recruited to function within the relict mitochondrial organelles (mitosomes) of Entamoeba histolytica. Both Nif proteins are 10-fold more concentrated within mitosomes compared with their cytosolic distribution suggesting that active Fe-S protein maturation occurs in these organelles. Quantitative immunoelectron microscopy showed that amoebal mitosomes are minute but highly abundant cellular structures that occupy up to 2% of the total cell volume. In addition, protein colocalization studies allowed identification of the amoebal hydroperoxide detoxification enzyme rubrerythrin as a mitosomal protein. This protein contains functional Fe-S centres and exhibits peroxidase activity in vitro. Our findings demonstrate the role of analogous protein replacement in mitochondrial organelle evolution and suggest that the relict mitochondrial organelles of Entamoeba are important sites of metabolic activity that function in Fe-S protein-mediated oxygen detoxification

Stability and Release Kinetics of an Advanced Gliclazide-Cholic Acid Formulation: The Use of Artificial-Cell Microencapsulation in Slow Release Targeted Oral Delivery of Antidiabetics

Introduction: In previous studies carried out in our laboratory, a bile acid (BA) formulation exerted a hypoglycaemic effect in a rat model of type-1 diabetes (T1D). When the antidiabetic drug gliclazide (G) was added to the bile acid, it augmented the hypoglycaemic effect. In a recent study, we designed a new formulation of gliclazide-cholic acid (G-CA), with good structural properties, excipient compatibility and exhibits pseudoplastic-thixotropic characteristics. The aim of this study is to test the slow release and pH-controlled properties of this new formulation. The aim is also to examine the effect of CA on G release kinetics at various pH values and different temperatures. Method: Microencapsulation was carried out using our Buchi-based microencapsulating system developed in our laboratory. Using sodium alginate (SA) polymer, both formulations were prepared: G-SA (control) and G-CA-SA (test) at a constant ratio (1:3:30), respectively. Microcapsules were examined for efficiency, size, release kinetics, stability and swelling studies at pH 1.5, pH 3, pH 7.4 and pH 7.8 and temperatures of 20 and 30 °C. Results: The new formulation is further optimised by the addition of CA. CA reduced microcapsule swelling of the microcapsules at pH 7.8 and pH 3 at 30 °C and pH 3 at 20 °C, and, even though microcapsule size remains similar after CA addition, percent G release was enhanced at high pH values (pH 7.4 and pH 7.8, p < 0.01). Conclusion: The new formulation exhibits colon-targeted delivery and the addition of CA prolonged G release suggesting its suitability for the sustained and targeted delivery of G and CA to the lower intestine

The Essentials of Protein Import in the Degenerate Mitochondrion of Entamoeba histolytica

Several essential biochemical processes are situated in mitochondria. The metabolic transformation of mitochondria in distinct lineages of eukaryotes created proteomes ranging from thousands of proteins to what appear to be a much simpler scenario. In the case of Entamoeba histolytica, tiny mitochondria known as mitosomes have undergone extreme reduction. Only recently a single complete metabolic pathway of sulfate activation has been identified in these organelles. The E. histolytica mitosomes do not produce ATP needed for the sulfate activation pathway and for three molecular chaperones, Cpn60, Cpn10 and mtHsp70. The already characterized ADP/ATP carrier would thus be essential to provide cytosolic ATP for these processes, but how the equilibrium of inorganic phosphate could be maintained was unknown. Finally, how the mitosomal proteins are translocated to the mitosomes had remained unclear. We used a hidden Markov model (HMM) based search of the E. histolytica genome sequence to discover candidate (i) mitosomal phosphate carrier complementing the activity of the ADP/ATP carrier and (ii) membrane-located components of the protein import machinery that includes the outer membrane translocation channel Tom40 and membrane assembly protein Sam50. Using in vitro and in vivo systems we show that E. histolytica contains a minimalist set up of the core import components in order to accommodate a handful of mitosomal proteins. The anaerobic and parasitic lifestyle of E. histolytica has produced one of the simplest known mitochondrial compartments of all eukaryotes. Comparisons with mitochondria of another amoeba, Dictystelium discoideum, emphasize just how dramatic the reduction of the protein import apparatus was after the loss of archetypal mitochondrial functions in the mitosomes of E. histolytica

Genes of mitochondrial origin in the genus Entamoeba

Entamoeba histolytica is the protozoan parasite that causes amoebic dysentery and amoebic liver abscesses in humans. For many years it was believed to be a primitive organism because it lacks many typical eukaryotic features including mitochondria. Recently, two genes that in other organisms encode proteins normally found in the mitochondrion have been isolated, giving evidence for the secondary loss of mitochondrial function in E. histolytica. These are the pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase (PNT) and the mitochondrial chaperonin cpn60 genes. In this study we isolated and characterised a gene encoding a mitochondrial-type heat shock protein 70 from E. histolytica. cDNA and genomic library clones have been isolated and sequenced. Comparison with previously published sequences confirmed the assumption that E. histolytica comes from mitochondrion - bearing ancestors. Southern blot hybridisation revealed there are two copies of the gene in the genome. Northern blot analysis revealed two transcripts hybridising to the mt-hsp70 probe that differ in length and which are induced by heat shock. In addition, an apparently noncoding, polyadenylated RNA that is also induced by heat shock is encoded immediately upstream of the mitochondrial-type hsp70 gene. Expression analysis was also performed in four other Entamoeba species. Partial cpn60, PNT, and mt-hsp70 genes were isolated and the size of the mRNAs and their heat shock induction levels were investigated by hybridisation to these probes. The similarity of the mt-hsp70 amino terminus to those of hydrogenosomal proteins in conjunction with the phylogenetic analyses suggests it is also likely to be targeted to the mitochondrion-derived organelle of E. histolytica known as the mitosome

Dissolution of steroidal compounds at physiological bile salt concentrations.

Changes in drug absorption between the fed and fasted states have often been attributed to bile salt effects. In the fasted state the median concentration of bile salts is 3-5 mM (range 0-14 mM) while in the fed state it is 14 mM (range 4-40 mM). A series of steroids with widely varying physicochemical properties was studied to determine the degree and mechanism by which changes in bile salt concentrations between fasted and fed state can affect the rate of drug dissolution. The compounds used were triamcinolone, hydrocortisone, dexamethasone, betamethasone and danazol. For each compound, solubility, contact angle, rotating disk and powder dissolution rates were measured as a function of bile salt concentration. The bile salt used was sodium taurocholate, a major bile salt in the gut. For each compound studied there was an increase in the initial rate of powder dissolution as bile salt concentrations changed from fasted to fed state levels. Dissolution changes between bile salt concentrations representing the mean fasted and fed state values were on the order of 2 to 5 fold suggesting that the enhancement in dissolution rate when the drug is administered with the food would be rather modest. The mechanism by which the improvement in dissolution rate was achieved varied with compound, despite their structural commonalities. Whereas for hydrocortisone and triamcinolone wetting effects predominated, for danazol solubilization accounted for the increase in dissolution. There was no rank order correlation between the improvement in dissolution rate as a function of bile salt concentration and any particular physicochemical property of the compounds studied. However, both the solubilization and wetting contributions to dissolution rate were found to be related to the physicochemical properties of the compound. Increase in solubility and in surface area, and therefore the overall increase in dissolution rate, could be predicted from the compound's melting point and partition coefficient and the NaTC concentration. Combination of this ability to predict dissolution rate effects a priori with other physiological changes between the fasted and the fed states should eventually lead to the ability to predict changes in bioavailability between fed and fasted state on a physicochemical parameter basis.Ph.D.Health and Environmental SciencesPharmaceutical sciencesUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/128550/2/9034379.pd

Comparison of the Mechanism of Dissolution of Hydrocortisone in Simple and Mixed Micelle Systems

Lecithin, a major phospholipid component of human bile, is instrumental in the formation of mixed micelles in vivo , with implications for the dissolution and absorption of poorly soluble compounds administered orally. Hydrocortisone, a poorly aqueous soluble drug ( S aq = 1.08 × 10 −3 M ), was chosen to compare the rate and mechanism of dissolution in a NaTC/lecithin (mixed micelle) system with its NaTC-only (simple micelle) counterpart. Surface tension, solubility studies, contact angles, rotating disk dissolution rates, and powder dissolution rates were compared for hydrocortisone between solutions containing NaTC/lecithin (4:1) and NaTC-only under conditions representative of the small intestine (0–30 m M NaTC, pH 5.5, 0.1 M NaCl). At all concentrations, the solubility of hydrocortisone in NaTC/lecithin was slightly higher (up to twofold) than in the corresponding NaTC-only solutions. At low NaTC concentrations, initial powder dissolution rates were faster in the NaTC/lecithin solutions than in corresponding NaTC-only solutions. In contrast, at high NaTC concentrations, initial powder dissolution rates in the NaTC-only solutions were faster. Results indicated that in the NaTC-only system wetting effects predominated for dissolution, while in the NaTC/lecithin system, the dissolution rate of hydro-cortisone was enhanced mainly via solubilization.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/41433/1/11095_2004_Article_304872.pd

Solubility of Mefenamic Acid Under Simulated Fed- and Fasted-State Conditions

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/41566/1/11095_2004_Article_305583.pd

Solubilization and Wetting Effects of Bile Salts on the Dissolution of Steroids

The ability of sodium taurocholate to increase the initial dissolution rate of five steroids was studied in terms of effects on solubility, wetting, and diffusion coefficient. For all compounds, wetting effects predominated over solubilization effects at bile salt concentrations representative of the fasted state. For hydrocortisone, triamcinolone, betamethasone, and dexamethasone, this trend also continued at the higher bile salt concentrations typical of the fed state. Bile salts solubilized these compounds by a factor of two or less, and diffusivity changes were negligible at bile salt concentrations up to 30 m M . For the more lipophilic danazol, the wetting effects were small and of importance only at premicellar levels of bile salt. At higher concentrations, the increase in solubility was the predominant factor. Incorporation into micelles appeared to decrease the diffusivity slightly, but this was important only at bile salts concentrations of 15 m M or higher. In conclusion, it appears that even within a series of structurally related compounds the mechanism by which bile salts mediate increases in dissolution rate can differ considerably.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/41556/1/11095_2004_Article_305633.pd