Language control is not a one-size-fits-all languages process: Evidence from simultaneous interpretation students and the n-2 repetition cost

Simultaneous interpretation is an impressive cognitive feat which necessitates the simultaneous use of two languages and therefore begs the question: how is language management accomplished during interpretation? One possibility is that both languages are maintained active and inhibitory control is reduced. To examine whether inhibitory control is reduced after experience with interpretation, students with varying experience were assessed on a three language switching paradigm. This paradigm provides an empirical measure of the inhibition applied to abandoned languages, the n-2 repetition cost. The groups showed different patterns of n-2 repetition costs across the three languages. These differences, however, were not connected to experience with interpretation. Instead, they may be due to other language characteristics. Specifically, the L2 n-2 repetition cost negatively correlated with self-rated oral L2 proficiency, suggesting that language proficiency may affect the use of inhibitory control. The differences seen in the L1 n-2 repetition cost, alternatively, may be due to the differing predominant interactional contexts of the groups. These results suggest that language control may be more complex than previously thought, with different mechanisms used for different languages. Further, these data represent the first use of the n-2 repetition cost as a measure to compare language control between groups

Are simultaneous interpreters expert bilinguals, unique bilinguals, or both?

Simultaneous interpretation is a cognitively demanding process that requires a high level of language management. Previous studies on bilinguals have suggested that extensive practice managing two languages leads to enhancements in cognitive control. Thus, interpreters may be expected to show benefits beyond those seen in bilinguals, either as an extension of previously-seen benefits or in areas specific to interpretation. The present study examined professional interpreters (N = 23) and matched multilinguals (N = 21) on memory tests, the color-word Stroop task, the Attention Network Test, and a non-linguistic task-switching paradigm. The interpreters did not show advantages in conflict resolution or switching cost where bilingual benefits have been noted. However, an interpretation-specific advantage emerged on the mixing cost in the task-switching paradigm. Additionally, the interpreters had larger verbal and spatial memory spans. Interpreters do not continue to garner benefits from bilingualism, but they do appear to possess benefits specific to their experience with simultaneous interpretation

The interaction of process and domain in prefrontal cortex during inductive reasoning

AbstractInductive reasoning is an everyday process that allows us to make sense of the world by creating rules from a series of instances. Consistent with accounts of process-based fractionations of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) along the left–right axis, inductive reasoning has been reliably localized to left PFC. However, these results may be confounded by the task domain, which is typically verbal. Indeed, some studies show that right PFC activation is seen with spatial tasks. This study used fMRI to examine the effects of process and domain on the brain regions recruited during a novel pattern discovery task. Twenty healthy young adult participants were asked to discover the rule underlying the presentation of a series of letters in varied spatial locations. The rules were either verbal (pertaining to a single semantic category) or spatial (geometric figures). Bilateral ventrolateral PFC activations were seen for the spatial domain, while the verbal domain showed only left ventrolateral PFC. A conjunction analysis revealed that the two domains recruited a common region of left ventrolateral PFC. The data support a central role of left PFC in inductive reasoning. Importantly, they also suggest that both process and domain shape the localization of reasoning in the brain

The neurocognitive fingerprint of simultaneous interpretation

The human brain is a dynamic organ which is molded throughout the lifespan by each individual\u2019s life experiences. Learning to juggle, speaking two languages, and playing the piano all number among experiences that leave an impression on the mind and brain. Little research, however, has examined one of the most demanding processes in human cognition, simultaneous interpretation (SI). In SI an individual must comprehend a stream of auditory material in one language and with a few seconds delay produce the same content in another language. This process, which is both a specialized form of bilingualism and a learned skill, similar to playing the piano, likely leaves its own distinct fingerprint on the mind and brain. The present work examines the neurocognition of professional and trainee simultaneous interpreters to better understand the process of simultaneous interpretation and the lasting impression it leaves. Bilingualism has been previously associated with advantages in cognitive control in both linguistic and non-linguistic domains. These benefits are posited to be due to bilinguals\u2019 extensive practice managing two languages. Simultaneous interpretation represents a process which requires a higher level of language management than most bilingual contexts. This increased experience may lead to quantitatively larger benefits in interpreters than in bilinguals. Additionally, interpreters may garner benefits which are unique to the interpreting experience, in particular the need to use two languages simultaneously. The first study addressed these possibilities in an examination of professional interpreters and matched multilinguals on three tasks of cognitive control. The two groups showed no differences on the color-word Stroop and Attention Network Test, tasks which have previously revealed an advantage for bilinguals. Results from a non-linguistic task-switching paradigm were mixed. Interpreters showed no additional advantage in switching costs, where bilingual benefits have previously been seen, but exhibited smaller mixing costs than the multilinguals. In comparison with previous literature, this benefit in mixing cost appears to be unique to simultaneous interpretation. Additionally, the interpreters had larger verbal and spatial memory spans than the multilinguals. The results suggest that professional interpreters do not have quantitatively larger bilingual benefits, but do possess benefits specific to experience with simultaneous interpretation As simultaneous interpretation is an acquired skill, these interpreter-specific advantages may have been gained through training in SI or represent innate differences that led individuals to the field. The second study examined students earning a Master in Conference Interpreting, and matched students in other disciplines, longitudinally to determine which cognitive abilities are innate and which are acquired through SI training. The results indicated improvements in verbal and spatial memory among the students of interpretation, but not among the students in other disciplines, suggesting that these abilities are acquired with training. An improvement in the mixing cost, however, was seen across the groups, leaving open the possibility of an influence of professional experience on this measure. Previous studies of skill acquisition have indicated that not only cognitive abilities, but also underlying brain structure is altered through the training period. To examine the effects of training in simultaneous interpretation on gray matter and white matter structure the above-mentioned groups additionally participated in neuroimaging sessions. Analysis of gray matter volume using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) revealed group differences in regions previously linked to spoken word learning, suggesting greater efficiency in these areas among students of interpretation. Additionally, changes in gray matter volume related to training in SI were evident in bilateral putamen and left superior temporal cortex, among other regions. Previous functional MRI studies of speech shadowing have found activation in these same regions, suggesting the changes may be related to the simultaneity of input and output during simultaneous interpretation. Moreover, analyses of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data revealed greater white matter integrity among the students of interpretation in tracts in the left hemisphere that underlie language. A subset of these tracts was further strengthened through training in SI. Finally, the mechanisms supporting the simultaneous use of two languages were considered, specifically addressing the possibility that interpreters apply less inhibition to the unused language. Students at various stages in their simultaneous interpretation training were tested on a three language switching paradigm. This paradigm affords a measure of inhibition of abandoned task sets through n-2 repetition costs. Though differences were found between the groups on n-2 repetition costs, these did not appear to be connected to SI training, but rather the predominant bilingual interactional context of the groups. Taken together these investigations begin to provide a picture of the effects that simultaneous interpretation has on cognitive abilities and brain structure. Specifically, interpreters appear to have a unique set of cognitive advantages that are related to the processes used during SI. Further, these advantages originate from a combination of innate and trained abilities

Asymmetry of the Frontal Aslant Tract is Associated with Lexical Decision

The frontal aslant tract (FAT) is a recently documented white matter tract that connects the inferior and superior frontal gyri with a tendency to be more pronounced in the left hemisphere. This tract has been found to play a role in language functions, particularly verbal fluency. However, it is not entirely clear to what extent FAT asymmetry is related to performance benefits in language-related tasks. In the present study, we aimed to fill this gap by examining the correlations between asymmetric micro- and macro-structural properties of the FAT and performance on verbal fluency and lexical decision tasks. The results showed no correlation between the FAT and verbal fluency; however, lexical decision was correlated with FAT laterality. Specifically, greater left lateralization in both micro- and macro-structural properties was related to faster lexical decision response times. The results were not due merely to motor or decision-making processes, as responses in a simple discrimination task showed no correlation with laterality. These data are the first to suggest a role for the FAT in mediating processes underlying lexical decision

Untangling Natural Seascape Variation from Marine Reserve Effects Using a Landscape Approach

Distinguishing management effects from the inherent variability in a system is a key consideration in assessing reserve efficacy. Here, we demonstrate how seascape heterogeneity, defined as the spatial configuration and composition of coral reef habitats, can mask our ability to discern reserve effects. We then test the application of a landscape approach, utilizing advances in benthic habitat mapping and GIS techniques, to quantify this heterogeneity and alleviate the confounding influence during reserve assessment. Seascape metrics were quantified at multiple spatial scales using a combination of spatial image analysis and in situ surveys at 87 patch reef sites in Glover's Reef Lagoon, Belize, within and outside a marine reserve enforced since 1998. Patch reef sites were then clustered into classes sharing similar seascape attributes using metrics that correlated significantly to observed variations in both fish and coral communities. When the efficacy of the marine reserve was assessed without including landscape attributes, no reserve effects were detected in the diversity and abundance of fish and coral communities, despite 10 years of management protection. However, grouping sites based on landscape attributes revealed significant reserve effects between site classes. Fish had higher total biomass (1.5×) and commercially important biomass (1.75×) inside the reserve and coral cover was 1.8 times greater inside the reserve, though direction and degree of response varied by seascape class. Our findings show that the application of a landscape classification approach vastly improves our ability to evaluate the efficacy of marine reserves by controlling for confounding effects of seascape heterogeneity and suggests that landscape heterogeneity should be considered in future reserve design

Deep-Diving and Diel Changes in Vertical Habitat Use by Caribbean Reef Sharks Carcharhinus perezi

Longline sampling (83 sets) supplemented with 6 pop-off archival transmitting (PAT) tag deployments were used to characterize vertical habitat use by Caribbean reef sharks Carcharhinus perezi at Glover\u27s Reef atoll, Belize. Longline catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) in 2 shallow reef habitats (lagoon \u3c18 m depth, fore-reef \u3c40 m depth) underwent significant nocturnal increases for sharks larger than 110 cm total length (TL), but not for smaller sharks. Nocturnal CPUE of small sharks appeared to increase in the lagoon and decrease on the fore-reef, suggestive of movements to avoid larger conspecifics. PAT tag deployments (7 to 20 d) indicate that large C. perezi generally increased the amount of time they spent in the upper 40 m of the water column during the night, and inhabited much greater depths and tolerated lower temperatures than previously described. The wide vertical (0 to 356 m) and temperature range (31 to 12.4°C) documented for this top-predator reveals ecological coupling of deep and shallow reef habitats and has implications for Marine Protected Area (MPA) design

Methods for Identifying Species Complexes Using a Novel Suite of Multivariate Approaches and Multiple Data Sources: A Case Study With Gulf of Alaska Rockfish

International and national laws governing the management of living marine resources generally require specification of harvest limits. To assist with the management of data-limited species, stocks are often grouped into complexes and assessed and managed as a single unit. The species that comprise a complex should have similar life history, susceptibility to the fishing gear, and spatial distribution, such that common management measures will likely lead to sustainable harvest of all species in the complex. However, forming complexes to meet these standards is difficult due to the lack of basic biological or fisheries data to inform estimates of biological vulnerability and fishery susceptibility. A variety of cluster and ordination techniques are applied to bycatch rockfish species in the Gulf of Alaska (GOA) as a case study to demonstrate how groupings may differ based on the multivariate techniques used and the availability and reliability of life history, fishery independent survey, and fishery catch data. For GOA rockfish, our results demonstrate that fishing gear primarily defined differences in species composition, and we suggest that these species be grouped by susceptibility to the main fishing gears while monitoring those species with high vulnerabilities to overfishing. Current GOA rockfish complex delineations (i.e., Other Rockfish and Demersal Shelf Rockfish) are consistent with the results of this study, but should be expanded across the entire GOA. Differences observed across species groupings for the variety of data types and multivariate approaches utilized demonstrate the importance of exploring a diversity of methods. As best practice in identifying species complexes, we suggest using a productivity-susceptibility analysis or expert judgement to begin groupings. Then a variety of multivariate techniques and data sources should be used to identify complexes, while balancing an appropriate number of manageable groups. Thus, optimal species complex groupings should be determined by commonality and consistency among a variety of multivariate methods and datasets

Isotopic Evidence for Early Trade in Animals between Old Kingdom Egypt and Canaan

Isotope data from a sacrificial ass and several ovicaprines (sheep/goat) from Early Bronze Age household deposits at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel provide direct evidence for the movement of domestic draught/draft and husbandry animals between Old Kingdom Egypt (during the time of the Pyramids) and Early Bronze Age III Canaan (ca. 2900–2500 BCE). Vacillating, bi-directional connections between Egypt and Canaan are known throughout the Early Bronze Age, but here we provide the first concrete evidence of early trade in animals from Egypt to Canaan

A revised diet matrix to improve the parameterization of a West Florida Shelf Ecopath model for understanding harmful algal bloom impacts

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a growing concern in the West Florida Shelf (WFS) region. An Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) model of the WFS explicitly simulating HABs was previously developed to illuminate the potential impacts of blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis (colloquially referred to as “red tides”) on the WFS ecosystem. However, the diet matrix of the Ecopath component of this EwE model (referred to as “WFS-HAB Ecopath”) was based largely on sparse, cursory information and not on local survey data. Here, we revise the diet matrix of the WFS-HAB Ecopath model using predictions of a robust statistical model that incorporates local survey data and employs the Dirichlet distribution and maximum likelihood estimation. The relative impacts of both the revised diet matrix and red tide mortality scenarios on model structure are explored by comparing four alternative WFS-HAB Ecopath models: (i) the base model; (ii) a model employing the revised diet matrix; (iii) a model with elevated red tide mortality; and (iv) a model with both the revised diet matrix and elevated red tide mortality. Incorporating the revised diet matrix into the WFS-HAB Ecopath model had a relatively large impact on ecosystem structure (i.e., trophic organization, mortality rates, trophic interaction strengths, and omnivory). Elevated red tide mortality had virtually no impact on ecosystem structure aside from altering the contribution of fishing, natural, and red tide mortalities to the total mortality of functional groups; however, elevated red tide mortality might have meaningful implications in dynamic simulations, which should be explored in future studies. Collectively, results showed that incorporating the revised diet matrix into WFS-HAB Ecopath, which revealed a number of new predator-prey linkages, led to a more complex and interconnected food web. Specifically, prey items were generally consumed by a broader variety of predators, which contrasts with the base WFS-HAB Ecopath model where many prey, particularly juvenile fishes, were subjected to exceedingly high predation mortality rates from specific predators. The incorporation of the revised diet matrix into the WFS-HAB Ecopath model discussed herein is a fundamental step towards increasing the realism of trophic interactions in the model, which is particularly important as these trophic interactions define starting conditions for dynamic simulations.publishedVersio