Does positive reinforcement training affect the behaviour and welfare of zoo animals? The case of the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)

Positive reinforcement training (PRT) is an established tool to facilitate animal husbandry, care and research in modern zoos, with potential positive implications for captive animal welfare. The study explored the role of an isolation PRT training programme on the well-being of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta). Eleven subjects were observed during an isolation training protocol to induce the animals to enter an area (training area) calmly and retrieve rewards separated from group members. Duration of individual and social behaviours were collected over two different periods: the baseline period, before the beginning of the isolation training protocol and the training period, in which the collection of the data started at the end of the isolation training sessions. Additionally, behavioural data within the isolation training sessions (latency to enter the training area and retrieve the reward, display of stress-related behaviours) were recorded. Outside the training sessions, lemurs were out of sight significantly more in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 15.46 ± 5.20) than in the training (Mean ± SD: 4.36 ± 2.89) period. Social behaviour was performed significantly more in the training (Mean ± SD: 31.80 ± 12.34) than in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 12.52 ± 5.14) period; particularly, lemurs were in social contact significantly more in the training (Mean ± SD: 14.09 ± 6.00) than in the baseline period (Mean ± SD: 4.58 ± 2.73). Agonistic behaviours were performed significantly more in the baseline (Mean ± SD: 0.23 ± 0.15) than in the training (Mean ± SD: 0.07 ± 0.07) period. Within the training sessions, all the individuals entered the training area, were isolated from conspecifics, and retrieved the reward in 6 out of 9 sessions. Our findings show that, during the PRT period, lemurs displayed their natural behaviour in their everyday social life with significant increase of their affiliative behaviours and decrease of aggressive behaviours with benefits for their welfare status. Thus, lemurs were able to cope with the use of PRT to isolate each individual from its social group – a situation which, without training, might be very stressful. In conclusion, PRT may play a crucial role for the captive management of ring-tailed lemurs in captive facilities, including zoos

Investigating parental care behaviour in same-sex pairing of zoo greater flamingo ( Phoenicopterus roseus )

This is the final version of the article. Available from PeerJ via the DOI in this record.Same-sex pair bonds have been documented in several animal species and they are widespread in birds. However, little is known about the evolutionary origin and the adaptive value of such behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate the parental behaviour of four zoo female greater flamingos involved in two breeding pairs, housed in a flock at Parco Natura Viva, Italy. Further, the behaviour of the study females was compared with that of male and female flamingos in heterosexual pairs described in a previous published work on this same flock. For each pair, the behaviour of both birds during the incubation period was recorded and twenty 10-minute sessions were run within the incubation period. A continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect data on location (on the nest or not on the nest) and the parental care behaviour (e.g.: agonistic behaviours toward disturbing conspecifics, egg-care, nest-building, self-comfort behaviour, sleeping) of the two pairs. Data of the current study females were compared with those of females and males involved in heterosexual pairs of this same flock. Results showed that within each pair the egg-layer female stayed away from the nest more than the other female. In addition, the female that did not lay an egg was more involved in agonistic behaviour compared to other females, particularly when in specific locations. In heterosexual pairs, male flamingos were more involved in the incubation and in nest protection. Moreover, no significant differences in the time spent on the nest and away from the nest between the heterosexual male and the non-layer females of same-sex pairs were found. The same findings were reported when comparing heterosexual females and the egg-layer females of the same-sex pairs. Therefore, our findings suggest that in greater flamingos the behaviour of the female–female pairs seems to be equivalent to that of male-female bonds. Such research provides more insight into flamingo social behaviour, and their reproductive cycle, and provides information on why pair bonds may form and how these affect the wider breeding behaviour of the flock

Gum-feeder as environmental enrichment for marmosets and tamarins

Tamarins and marmosets are small‐bodied social callitrichines. Wild callitrichines feed on exudates, such as sap and gum; particularly, marmosets are mainly gummivores, while tamarins consume gums only occasionally and opportunistically. Zoo marmosets and tamarins are usually provided with gum arabic as an alternative to the exudates normally found in the wild. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a gum feeder on the behavior and well‐being of four zoo‐managed callitrichines. We studied four cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), four red‐handed tamarins (S. midas), two pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea), and three Geoffroy's marmosets (Callithrix geoffroyi) housed at Parco Natura Viva (Italy). We conducted the study over two different periods, a baseline (control, without the gum feeder) and then a gum feeder (when the gum feeder was provided) period. We used continuous focal animal sampling to collect behavioral data, including durations of social and individual behaviors. We collected 240 min of observations per period per study subject, with a total of 3,120 min for all the subjects in the same period and of 6,240 min in both periods. We analyzed data by using nonparametric statistical tests. First, we found that the gum feeder promoted species‐specific behaviors, such as exploration, and diminished self‐directed behaviors, suggesting an enriching effect on tamarin and marmoset behavior. Moreover, in red‐handed tamarins, the provision of the gum feeder reduced the performance of self‐directed and abnormal behavior, specifically coprophagy. These results confirm that gum feeders are effective foraging enrichment tools for zoo marmosets and tamarins

The personality of captive lionessess influence their reaction to environmental and social changes?

Studying the personality traits in zoo animals might be useful to better satisfy their behavioral needs and improve individual well-being [1]. The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the response of a group of lionesses exposed to environmental and social changes, and to correlate them to their personality profile. The subjects were three lionesses (Panthera leo) housed at Parco Natura Viva. Personality traits were evaluated by rating method [2] and then behavioral observation data were collected (continuous focal animal sampling method) and analyzed (BORIS software [3]) focusing on individual and social behaviours. During the first period (baseline), no changes were introduced in the lioness\u2019s life and environment. In the second period, two male lions arrived at the park, and where hosted in an enclosure near to the study lionesses. In the third period, lionesses were provided with novel objects (panels with pictures). The results showed that personality profiles were different between the study subjects. The results of behavioral observations have highlighted that the arrival of the new males led to behavioral changes in particular in social behavior (Wilcoxon test, p < 0.016) which also differed significantly between the lionesses (Kruskal-Wallis test, p < 0.05). Moreover, the arrival of the two males led the lionesses to perform pacing with differences between them (Kruskal-Wallis test p < 0.05). The introduction of novel objects helps the lionesses to manage the arrival of the new lions (Wilcoxon test (p < 0.016). In conclusion, all the three subjects were affected by the new stimuli, but the extent of the behavioral modification varied significantly from one lioness to the other, confirming various personality profiles previously assessed

Positive reinforcement training: a tool for care and management of captive vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops)

In modern zoos, training should be an integral component of the animal care and management. The benefits of training include the opportunity for positive interactions with caretakers. This study was carried out with a group of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) housed at the Garda Zoological Park (Italy). Using focal animal sampling, we observed the behaviour performed by all group members (N = 10) from December 2007 to August 2008. The group took part in a training program to be isolated in a familiar area before the subjects were included in a cognitive study. We collected behavioural data during a pre-training period to assess the social behaviour of the colony and during the training period to investigate the effects of the training program on the behaviour of individuals. Additionally, a second phase of the study was conducted and training sessions with individual monkeys were video-recorded to determine the behaviour of animals during each training session and thus to confirm that they were suitable for participating in the procedure. Our results suggest that the training program enriched the daily routine of these captive primates by increasing affiliative behaviours while decreasing agonistic behaviours. Furthermore, there was behavioural response variability among the individuals under training procedure. However all the individuals were trained to calmly enter in a familiar area and to be isolated from other members of the group. In conclusion, our findings highlight the importance of using the positive reinforcement training to reduce the tension directly associated with potentially stressful procedures by allowing primates to voluntarily participate in these procedures. In addition, the training was found to be an enrichment tool for vervet monkeys

The chiroptera gut microbiota: evidence for bifidobacteria presence in Rousettus aegyptiacus

Bifidobacteria represent one of the main bacterial groups occurring in the gut of primates and other animals and are well known for their positive role on host health. Moreover, bifidobacteriaceae are used in coevolution studies since they are maintained within host lineages across hundreds of thousands of host generations. Therefore, the discovery of bifidobacterial diversity in the gastrointestinal tract together with the isolation and characterization of novel bacterial taxa in different hosts is essential. Until now no evidence has been reported about the occurrence of bifidobacteria in bats which are a crucial part of the ecosystem and are ecologically and economically advantageous to humans especially frugivorous ones. This study aimed at the investigation of bifidobacteria in bats belonging to Rousettus aegyptiacus species which were born in Egypt and hosted in Natura Viva Garda Zoological Park (Bussolengo, Verona, Italy). Faecal samples were serially diluted and plated on selective medium MRS supplemented with 0.05 % (w/v) cysteine, 100 mg/l norfloxacin, 2 mg/l cycloheximide, 50 mg/l mupirocin and 1 ml/l acetic acid. Strains were typed by BOX-PCR. Representative isolates of each cluster were identified sequencing 16S rRNA gene and studied for phylogenetical relationship with other Bifidobacteriaceae. Similarities among profiles were calculated by clustering the Pearson\u201fs correlation matrix using UPGMA algorithm. A total of 13 bifidobacteria were isolated and two of them belonged to new bifidobacterial species according to 16S rRNA gene analysis. The majority of strains revealed a phylogenetic relationship with bifidobacteria isolated from non-human primates. This evolutive link of bifidobacterial microbiotas between bats and non-human primates will be further investigated studying bifidobacteria characterizing Rousettus aegyptiacus bats from Egypt in order to offer new insights about bats origin