Nurses' perceptions of aids and obstacles to the provision of optimal end of life care in ICU

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On the outskirts of the industrial society : the transformation of small-scale farming in Lapland during the period 1870-1970

This investigation deals with the function and transformation of small-scale farming during the period when the industrial society emerged. The development in Northern Lapland during the period 1870-1970 has been studied and compared with the development in other parts of Sweden. Although the economic result of farming was unusually bad farming continued to expand longer in Lapland than in any other part of the country. What made it possible for small farmers to achieve an acceptable material standard was that food production for the members of the households was eked out with incomes from other kinds of work. In the thesis the concept "multi-active farming" is used to denote this type of small-scale farming. It may be interpreted as an initiated, but uncompleted, specialization away from farming in the direction of non-agrarian activities. The supplementary incomes, chiefly from forestry, were consequently one of the prerequisites for the development of small-scale farming in Lapland. Another was that peasants transformed agriculture and made it more efficient, so that productivity increased. In the first half of the 20th Century productivity on these small farms of less than five hectares of land increased almost as rapidly as on the large farms in the plains of southern and central Sweden. In this way multi-active peasants managed to keep up production at the same time as they were able to transfer labour from their low-productive farms to more high-productive work outside their farms. A third, very important prerequisite for the expansion of small-scale farming was the shortage of full-time jobs outside the multi-active farms. These offered a degree of safety when the supply of other work was scarce and unemployment high. The shortage of alternative full-time jobs explains why the number of small farms continued to increase in Lapland although small peasants did not have higher incomes there than in other parts of Sweden. In the period after the Second World War the third prerequisite did not apply any longer. Employment in the non-agrarian sector increased rapidly. The small farms lost their old function and many of them were closed down soon after 1945. This process precipitated mechanization and a transition to full-time work in forestry. With time it became more difficult for small peasants to get supplementary incomes. In this way still another of the prerequisites for the existence of small-scale farming disappeared, and the process of closing down small farms was cumulative at the end of the 1960s.digitalisering@um

To depend on one's children or to depend on oneself : Savings for old-ageand children's impact on wealth

How did workers make provisions for old age before the introduction of old agepensions? What was the relative importance of dependence on children and saving forold age respectively? This article concerns the transition from a traditional familybasedsystem for economic support in old age to a more modern system. Regarding thenineteenth century, studies have shown that (a) savings generally were insufficient forfull retirement, and that (b) families were dependent on children’s incomes when thebreadwinner became older. Little attention has been paid to the question of how therelative importance of these two alternatives changed during the century. This questionis addressed here in a cross-sectional study of net wealth based on probate inventoriesfor three Swedish towns in the 1820s and the 1900s.The results show that in general the economic importance of children was largeramong the lower socio-economic strata. They also reveal that net costs for havingchildren increased between the investigated periods. This means that dependence onchildren became more expensive. Consequently, the economic importance of thisalternative decreased. This may have been a strong motive for the fertility transition.On the other hand, net wealth for workers increased at the end of the nineteenthcentury. Financial assets constituted a great part of the increase. Workers with childrenhad less financial savings than those without children, showing that there was a conflictbetween the traditional and the modern systems for support in old age. However, still atthe turn of the twentieth century funds were generally too small to allow an old workerto retire. These results indicate that neither the old, nor the modern systems, fullysatisfied the need for support in old age. This may explain why several WesternEuropean countries introduced old age pensions at the beginning of the twentiethcentury.Family saving in a life cycle perspectiv

Manipulation for Acquisition of mathematics ideas of 5-6 years old pupils

Kvalifikācijas darba autore: Marina Larionova. Kvalifikācijas darba nosaukums: Priekšmetiskā darbība matemātikas priekšstatu apguves veicināšanā 5-6 g. vecuma bērniem. Darba mērķis: teorētiski un praktiski pētīt vecākā pirmsskolas vecumposma bērnu priekšmetisko darbību un apkopot ieteikumus matemātikas priekšstatu apguves veicināšanā 5-6 g. vecuma bērniem. Darbs sastāv: ievads, 2 (divas) daļas, 4 (četras) apakšnodaļas, secinājumi, 60 (sešdesmit) literatūras un avotu saraksts, 17 (septiņpadsmit) pielikumi. Kvalifikācijas darba apjoms: 55 lpp., darbā 7 tabulas, 7attēli, 17 pielikumi. Pirmajā daļā tiek analizēta daudzu zinātnieku un autoru teorija par matemātikas priekšstatiem un to apguvi pirmsskolā, un raksturota priekšmetiskā darbības būtība priekšstatu apguves veicināšanā 5-6 g. vecuma bērniem. Otrajā daļā tiek pētīta reālā situācija matemātikas priekšstatu apguvē. Kā arī tiek piedāvāti ieteikumi, lai veicinātu šo priekšstatu apguvi. Atslēgas vārdi: priekšmetiskā darbība, matemātiskie priekšstati, 5-6 g. vecuma bērni, pirmskola.Author of the qualification paper: Marina Larionova. Title of the qualification paper: Manipulation for Acquisition of mathematics ideas of 5-6 years old pupils. Objective of the paper: to study in theory and practice the Manipulation for Acquisition in older preschool-age children and sum-up recommendations of mathematics ideas of 5-6 years old pupils. The paper consists: the introduction, 2 (two) chapters, 4 (four) subdivisions, conclusions, 60 (sixty) units of literature and a list of sources, 17 (seventeen) of the annexes. Extent of the qualification paper: 55 pages, 7 tables, 7 figures, 17 annexes. The first chapter analyzes many scholars and authors the theory about mathematical ideas and acquisitions in the pre-school, and presents Manipulation for Acquisition essence of mathematics ideas of 5-6 years old pupils. The second chapter explores the real situation for Acquisition of mathematics ideas. And are being made recommendations for promote manipulation of acquisition. Keywords: Manipulation for Acquisition, mathematics ideas, 5-6 years old pupils, pre-school

Adolescents’ impact on family economy in Sweden : During the first decades of the twentieth century

Adolescents' income contributions to working-class families decreased between the 1910s and the 1930s in Sweden. This was significant for adolescents' right to self-determination. By using household budget surveys, this article shows that at the time of the Great Depression, working adolescents paid less at home than had been common at the beginning of the twentieth century. Youth unemployment is one explanation, although it was also a consequence of children keeping more of their earnings for themselves. This development led to rising costs for having children and is interpreted as an aspect of the trade-off between quantity and quality of children

The necessity of small loans : the borrowing and lending among low-income earners in early 20th century Sweden

It is difficult for households to match a low and fluctuating income with their expenditures. One short-term strategy for managing cash-flow problems is to turn to one’s social networks for support. This article describes and analyses the borrowing and lending of small loans (corresponding to one-two days of pay) among low-income earners and the role these loans had in the household economy. By analysing the detailed weekly reports in the Swedish cost of living survey 1913/14, it is possible to explain when and why households borrowed and lent. This was after a period of rising real wages in Sweden, yet surpluses were still small and a public safety net had only begun developing. More than half of the studied 118 workers and 105 lower officials, respectively, borrowed small sums. However, most just borrowed once or a few times over the year. To give a loan was less common than borrowing. Some lenders likely felt obliged to give loans to less well-off borrowers. Other households engaged in reciprocal borrowing and lending of small loans. Small loans were mostly used to handle income shortfalls and not expenditures shocks. Consequently, larger income fluctuations led to more borrowing among workers, unlike the level of household income. Being in a vulnerable position in the life-cycle with young children also increased the risk of borrowing among both workers and lower officials. However, income from adolescents did not seem to have mitigated cash-flow problems as older children increased household borrowing too. Lending declined after the start of WWI. This means that the source underestimates annual lending during peacetime conditions. However, the demand for loans remained largely constant, forcing workers in need to seek out other sources of credit. Still, households’ social networks played an important part in an incessant struggle to make ends meet.Krediters förändrade roll i hushållens ekonomi under första hälften av 1900-tale