Neuroimmunomodulatory and neuroprotective effects of the flavonoid apigenin in in vitro models of neuroinflammation associated with Alzheimer's disease

Neurodegenerative disorders (ND) are characterized by the progressive and irreversible loss of neurons. Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most incident age-related ND, in which the presence of a chronic inflammatory compound seems to be related to its pathogenesis. Different stimuli in the central nervous system (CNS) can induce activation, proliferation, and changes in phenotype and glial function, which can be modulated by anti-inflammatory agents. Apigenin (4,5,7–trihydroxyflavone) is a flavonoid found in abundance in many fruits and vegetables, that has shown important effects upon controlling the inflammatory response. This study evaluated the neuroprotective and neuroimmunomodulatory potential of apigenin using in vitro models of neuroinflammation associated with AD. Co-cultures of neurons and glial cells were obtained from the cortex of newborn and embryonic Wistar rats. After 26 days in vitro, cultures were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 1 μg/ml), or IL-1β (10 ng/ml) for 24 h, or to Aβ oligomers (500 nM) for 4 h, and then treated with apigenin (1 μM) for further 24 h. It was observed that the treatment with apigenin preserved neurons and astrocytes integrity, determined by Rosenfeld’s staining and immunocytochemistry for β-tubulin III and GFAP, respectively. Moreover, it was observed by Fluoro-Jade-B and caspase-3 immunostaining that apigenin was not neurotoxic and has a neuroprotective effect against inflammatory damage. Additionally, apigenin reduced microglial activation, characterized by inhibition of proliferation (BrdU+ cells) and modulation of microglia morphology (Iba-1 + cells), and decreased the expression of the M1 inflammatory marker CD68. Moreover, as determined by RT-qPCR, inflammatory stimuli induced by IL-1β increased the mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-1β, and CCL5, and decreased the mRNA expression of IL-10. Contrary, after treatment with apigenin in inflammatory stimuli (IL-1β or LPS) there was a modulation of the mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines, and reduced expression of OX42, IL-6 and gp130. Moreover, apigenin alone and after an inflammatory stimulus with IL-1β also induced the increase in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), an effect that may be associated with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. Together these data demonstrate that apigenin presents neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and might represent an important neuroimmunomodulatory agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative conditions

Características de la canal y de la carne en la raza caprina Bermeya. Comparación con el Ternasco de Aragón y lechales de la raza Murciano-Granadina

Se ha estudiado la calidad de la raza caprina Bermeya: lechales ligeros (BL) y cabritos pesados de explotación tradicional (BP), que se compararon con productos reconocidos (lechal de la raza Murciano-Granadina (MG) y corderos amparados bajo la IGP Ternasco de Aragón (TA). Los animales fueron criados y sacrificados en condiciones comerciales, y seleccionados por las respectivas Asociaciones de Productores y Consejo Regulador. Los porcentajes de hueso y músculo fueron mayores, y el de grasa inferior, en Bermeya (P < 0,001), encontrándose, igualmente, diferencias en la composición química de la carne. Los animales bermeyos presentaron valores de pH superiores (P < 0,001) a los de MG o TA. Los BP presentaron un índice de rojo y croma mayor respecto a BL. Tanto el tipo de animal como el tiempo de maduración afectaron significativamente a la textura. Así, MG mostró el mayor valor al 20% de compresión (C20) a 2 días de maduración (P < 0,001) y el TA los menores al 80% de compresión (C80) en todos los tiempos de maduración (P < 0,001). Se observaron diferencias significativas en casi todos los ácidos grasos analizados y en la intensidad de olor a especie (P < 0,05), terneza, jugosidad e intensidad de flavor a especie (P < 0,001), valoradas por un panel entrenado. En aceptabilidad global y de la terneza (consumidores), BL presentaron puntuaciones superiores (P < 0,001) a BP, aunque inferiores a las de los productos de referencia. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren, no obstante, una buena aceptación de los productos de la raza Bermeya y un cierto grado de diferenciación con los productos con los que han sido comparados Meat quality characteristics from Bermeya goat breed were studied. Light suckling kids (n = 12) and heavy kids from the traditional production system (n = 10) were compared with reference products from the Spanish market (suckling kids from Murciano-Granadina breed (MG); n = 12 and light lamb included in the Ternasco de Aragón Protected Geographic Indication (TA); n = 12). Animals were reared and slaughtered under commercial conditions, and selected from the respective Breeder Associations. Bermeya carcasses showed greater percentage of bone and muscle (P < 0.001), and lower percentage of fat in comparison with the other types, differing also in the chemical meat composition. pH values were higher in both Bermeya breed types than in MG and TA. Redness and Chroma increased with age in the Bermeya breed. Both type of animal and ageing affected textural variables. Murciano-Granadina meat showed the highest value of compression at 20% (C20) at 2 days of ageing (P < 0.001) and TA the smallest at 80% of compression rate (C80) at all the ageing times analyzed (P < 0.001). Differences between commercial types were observed both in most fatty acids and in the intensity of species odor (P < 0.05), tenderness, juiciness and specie flavour (P < 0.001) evaluated by trained panelists. A higher tenderness and overall acceptability scores were given by consumers to light Bermeya in comparison with heavy Bermeya kids (P < 0.001), and both were lower than those of the reference products. Results suggest a good acceptability and certain degree of differentiation from Bermeya breed products with respect to those compared with

'Universal' FitzGerald Contractions

The model of a universe with a preferred frame, which nevertheless shares the main properties with traditional special and general relativity theories, is considered. We adopt Mach's interpretation of inertia and show that the energy balance equation, which includes the Machian energy of gravitational interactions with the universe, can imitate standard relativistic formulas.Comment: The version accepted by Eur. Phys. J.

Fine roots stimulate nutrient release during early stages of leaf litter decomposition in a Central Amazon rainforest

Purpose Large parts of the Amazon rainforest grow on weathered soils depleted in phosphorus and rock-derived cations. We tested the hypothesis that in this ecosystem, fine roots stimulate decomposition and nutrient release from leaf litter biochemically by releasing enzymes, and by exuding labile carbon stimulating microbial decomposers. Methods We monitored leaf litter decomposition in a Central Amazon tropical rainforest, where fine roots were either present or excluded, over 188 days and added labile carbon substrates (glucose and citric acid) in a fully factorial design. We tracked litter mass loss, remaining carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and cation concentrations, extracellular enzyme activity and microbial carbon and nutrient concentrations. Results Fine root presence did not affect litter mass loss but significantly increased the loss of phosphorus and cations from leaf litter. In the presence of fine roots, acid phosphatase activity was 43.2% higher, while neither microbial stoichiometry, nor extracellular enzyme activities targeting carbon- and nitrogen-containing compounds changed. Glucose additions increased phosphorus loss from litter when fine roots were present, and enhanced phosphatase activity in root exclusions. Citric acid additions reduced litter mass loss, microbial biomass nitrogen and phosphorus, regardless of fine root presence or exclusion. Conclusions We conclude that plant roots release significant amounts of acid phosphatases into the litter layer and mobilize phosphorus without affecting litter mass loss. Our results further indicate that added labile carbon inputs (i.e. glucose) can stimulate acid phosphatase production by microbial decomposers, highlighting the potential importance of plant-microbial feedbacks in tropical forest ecosystems