Are the Dorsa Argentea on Mars eskers?

The Dorsa Argentea are an extensive assemblage of ridges in the southern high latitudes of Mars. They have previously been interpreted as eskers formed by deposition of sediment in subglacial meltwater conduits, implying a formerly more extensive south polar ice sheet. In this study, we undertake the first large-scale statistical analysis of aspects of the geometry and morphology of the Dorsa Argentea in comparison with terrestrial eskers in order to evaluate this hypothesis. The ridges are re-mapped using integrated topographic (MOLA) and image (CTX/HRSC) data, and their planar geometries compared to recent characterisations of terrestrial eskers. Quantitative tests for esker-like relationships between ridge height, crest morphology and topography are then completed for four major Dorsa Argentea ridges. The following key conclusions are reached: (1) Statistical distributions of lengths and sinuosities of the Dorsa Argentea are similar to those of terrestrial eskers in Canada. (2) Planar geometries across the Dorsa Argentea support formation of ridges in conduits extending towards the interior of an ice sheet that thinned towards its northern margin, perhaps terminating in a proglacial lake. (3) Variations in ridge crest morphology are consistent with observations of terrestrial eskers. (4) Statistical tests of previously observed relationships between ridge height and longitudinal bed slope, similar to those explained by the physics of meltwater flow through subglacial meltwater conduits for terrestrial eskers, confirm the strength of these relationships for three of four major Dorsa Argentea ridges. (5) The new quantitative characterisations of the Dorsa Argentea may provide useful constraints for parameters in modelling studies of a putative former ice sheet in the south polar regions of Mars, its hydrology, and mechanisms that drove its eventual retreat.FEGB is funded by STFC grant ST/N50421X/1 and is grateful for bursaries provided by The Open University, The Ogden Trust and the British Society for Geomorphology. SJC was funded by a Leverhulme Trust Grant RPG-397. We would like to thank Peter Fawdon for his technical advice. We are grateful to RD Storrar for providing raw data for the Canadian eskers, and to both RD Storrar and H Bernhardt for their insightful reviews of the manuscript.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from Elsevier via https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.icarus.2016.03.02

Supraglacial lakes on the Larsen B ice shelf, Antarctica, and at Paakitsoq, West Greenland:A Comparative Study

This is the accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Ingenta Connect at http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/igsoc/agl/2014/00000055/00000066/art00001.Supraglacial meltwater lakes trigger ice-shelf break-up and modulate seasonal ice\ud sheet flow, and are thus agents by which warming is transmitted to the Antarctic\ud and Greenland ice sheets. To characterize supraglacial lake variability we perform a\ud comparative analysis of lake geometry and depth in two distinct regions, one on the\ud pre-collapse (2002) Larsen B Ice Shelf, and the other in the ablation zone of\ud Paakitsoq, a land-terminating region of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Compared to\ud Paakitsoq, lakes on the Larsen B Ice Shelf cover a greater proportion of surface area\ud (5.3% vs. 1%), but are shallower and more uniform in area. Other aspects of lake\ud geometry, such as eccentricity, degree of convexity (solidity) and orientation, are\ud relatively similar between the two regions. We attribute the notable difference in\ud lake density and depth between ice-shelf and grounded ice to the fact that ice shelves\ud have flatter surfaces and less distinct drainage basins. Ice shelves also possess more\ud stimuli to small-scale, localized surface elevation variability due to the various\ud structural features that yield small variations in thickness and which float at\ud different levels by Archimedes? principle.We acknowledge the support of the U.S. National Science Foundation under grant ANT-0944248

Refined energy-balance modelling of a supraglacial pond, Langtang Khola, Nepal

Supraglacial ponds on debris-covered glaciers present a mechanism of atmosphere/glacier energy transfer that is poorly studied, and only conceptually included in mass-balance studies of Debris-covered glaciers. This research advances previous efforts to develop a model of mass and energy balance for supraglacial ponds by applying a free-convection approach to account for energy exchanges at the subaqueous bare-ice surfaces. We develop the model using field data from a pond on Lirung Glacier, Nepal, that was monitored during the 2013 and 2014 monsoon periods. Sensitivity testing is performed for several key parameters, and alternative melt algorithms are compared with the model. The pond acts as a significant recipient of energy for the glacier system, and actively participates in the glacier’s hydrologic system during the monsoon. Melt rates are 2–4 cm d–1 (total of 98.5 m3 over the study period) for bare ice in contact with the pond, and <1 mm d–1 (total of 10.6 m3) for the saturated debris zone. The majority of absorbed atmospheric energy leaves the pond system through englacial conduits, delivering sufficient energy to melt 2612m3 additional ice over the study period (38.4 m3 d–1). Such melting might be expected to lead to subsidence of the glacier surface. Supraglacial ponds efficiently convey atmospheric energy to the glacier’s interior and rapidly promote the downwasting process.This research was enabled by PhD studentship funding from the Gates Cambridge Trust. Fieldwork was supported by the USAID (United States Agency for International Development) High Mountain Glacier Watershed Programs Climber-Scientist Grant (CCRDCS0010), Swiss National Science Foundation project UNCOMUN (SNF 200021L146761), Trinity College, Cambridge, the B.B. Roberts Fund and the Philip Lake and William Vaughn Lewis Fund.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from the International Glaciological Society via http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A42

Modelling Esker Formation on Mars

International audience&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;#160; Eskers are sinuous sedimentary ridges that are widespread across formerly glaciated landscapes on Earth. They form when sediment in subglacial tunnels is deposited by meltwater. Some sinuous ridges on Mars have been identified as eskers; whilst some are thought to have formed early in Mars&amp;#8217; history beneath extensive ice sheets, smaller, younger systems associated with extant glaciers in Mars&amp;#8217; mid latitudes have also been identified. Elevated geothermal heating and formation during periods with more extensive glaciation have been suggested as possible prerequisites for recent Martian esker deposition.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Here, we adapt a model of esker formation with g and other constants altered to Martian values, using it initially to investigate the impact of Martian conditions on subglacial tunnel systems, before investigating the effect of varying water discharge on esker deposition.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods:&lt;/strong&gt; To investigate the effect of these values on the operation of subglacial tunnel systems we first conduct a series of model experiments with steady water discharge, varying the assumed liquid density (r&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt;) from 1000 kgm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; to 1980 kgm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; (the density of saturated perchlorate brine) and ice hardness (A) from 2.4x10&lt;sup&gt;-24&lt;/sup&gt; Pa&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; to 5x10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; Pa&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (a temperature range of 0&amp;#176;C to -50&amp;#176;C). We then investigate the impact of variable water discharge on esker formation to simulate very simply a possible release of meltwater from an assumed geothermal event beneath a Martian glacier or ice cap.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results and Discussion:&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;#160; A key aspect of model behaviour is the decrease in sediment carrying capacity towards the ice margin due to increased tunnel size as ice thins. Our results suggest that Martian parameters emphasise this effect, making deposition more likely over a greater length of the conduit. Lower gravity has the largest impact; it reduces the modeled closure rate of subglacial tunnels markedly as this varies with overburden stress (and hence g) cubed. Frictional heating from flowing water also drops, but much less sensitively. Thus, for a given discharge, the tunnels tend to be larger, leading to lower water pressure and a reduction in flow power. This effect is amplified for harder ice. Higher inferred fluid density raises the flow power, but by a smaller amount.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;These effects are clearly seen in the variable discharge experiments. Sediment is deposited on the falling limb of the hydrograph, when the tunnels are larger than the equivalent steady-state water discharge would produce. Sediment deposition occurs much further upglacier from the glacier snout, and occurs earlier on the falling limb leading to longer periods in which deposition occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions:&lt;/strong&gt; Our results suggest that esker formation within a subglacial meltwater tunnel would be&amp;#160;more likely on Mars than Earth, primarily because subglacial tunnels tend to be larger for equivalent water discharges, with consequent lower water flow velocities. This allows sediment deposition over longer lengths of tunnel, and to greater depths, than for terrestrial systems. Future work will use measured bed topography of a mid-latitude esker to assess the impact of topography on deposition patterns and esker morphology, and we will expand the range of discharges and sediment supply regimes investigated.&lt;/p&gt

Ice dynamic response to two modes of surface lake drainage on the Greenland ice sheet

Supraglacial lake drainage on the Greenland ice sheet opens surface-to-bed connections, reduces basal friction, and temporarily increases ice flow velocities by up to an order of magnitude. Existing field-based observations of lake drainages and their impact on ice dynamics are limited, and focus on one specific draining mechanism. Here, we report and analyse global positioning system measurements of ice velocity and elevation made at five locations surrounding two lakes that drained by different mechanisms and produced different dynamic responses. For the lake that drained slowly (>24 h) by overtopping its basin, delivering water via a channel to a pre-existing moulin, speedup and uplift were less than half those associated with a lake that drained rapidly (~2 h) through hydrofracturing and the creation of new moulins in the lake bottom. Our results suggest that the mode and associated rate of lake drainage govern the impact on ice dynamics

Refined energy-balance modelling of a supraglacial pond, Langtang Khola, Nepal

AbstractSupraglacial ponds on debris-covered glaciers present a mechanism of atmosphere/glacier energy transfer that is poorly studied, and only conceptually included in mass-balance studies of debris-covered glaciers. This research advances previous efforts to develop a model of mass and energy balance for supraglacial ponds by applying a free-convection approach to account for energy exchanges at the subaqueous bare-ice surfaces. We develop the model using field data from a pond on Lirung Glacier, Nepal, that was monitored during the 2013 and 2014 monsoon periods. Sensitivity testing is performed for several key parameters, and alternative melt algorithms are compared with the model. The pond acts as a significant recipient of energy for the glacier system, and actively participates in the glacier’s hydrologic system during the monsoon. Melt rates are 2-4 cm d-1 (total of 98.5 m3 over the study period) for bare ice in contact with the pond, and &lt;1 mmd-1 (total of 10.6m3) for the saturated debris zone. The majority of absorbed atmospheric energy leaves the pond system through englacial conduits, delivering sufficient energy to melt 2612 m3 additional ice over the study period (38.4 m3 d-1). Such melting might be expected to lead to subsidence of the glacier surface. Supraglacial ponds efficiently convey atmospheric energy to the glacier’s interior and rapidly promote the downwasting process.This research was enabled by PhD studentship funding from the Gates Cambridge Trust. Fieldwork was supported by the USAID (United States Agency for International Development) High Mountain Glacier Watershed Programs Climber-Scientist Grant (CCRDCS0010), Swiss National Science Foundation project UNCOMUN (SNF 200021L146761), Trinity College, Cambridge, the B.B. Roberts Fund and the Philip Lake and William Vaughn Lewis Fund.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from the International Glaciological Society via http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A42

Calibration and evaluation of a high-resolution surface mass-balance model for Paakitsoq, West Greenland

Modelling the hydrology of the Greenland ice sheet, including the filling and drainage of supraglacial lakes, requires melt inputs generated at high spatial and temporal resolution. Here we apply a high spatial (100 m) and temporal (1 hour) mass-balance model to a 450 km2 subset of the Paakitsoq region, West Greenland. The model is calibrated by adjusting the values for parameters of fresh snow density, threshold temperature for solid/liquid precipitation and elevation-dependent precipitation gradient to minimize the error between modelled output and surface height and albedo measurements from three Greenland Climate Network stations for the mass-balance years 2000/01 and 2004/05. Bestfit parameter values are consistent between the two years at 400 kg m–3, 2° C and +14% (100 m)–1, respectively. Model performance is evaluated, first, by comparing modelled snow and ice distribution with that derived from Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite imagery using normalized-difference snow index classification and supervised image thresholding; and second, by comparing modelled albedo with that retrieved from the MODIS sensor MOD10A1 product. Calculation of mass-balance components indicates that 6% of surface meltwater and rainwater refreezes in the snowpack and does not become runoff, such that refreezing accounts for 31% of the net accumulation

Possible Transport of Basal Debris to the Surface of a Mid-Latitude Glacier on Mars

International audience&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Introduction:&lt;/strong&gt; We observe internal flow structures within a viscous flow feature (VFF; 51.24&amp;#176;W, 42.53&amp;#176;S) interpreted as a debris-covered glacier in Nereidum Montes, Mars. The structures are exposed in the wall of a gully that is incised through the VFF, parallel to its flow-direction. They are near to the glacier terminus and appear to connect its deep interior (and possibly its bed) to arcuate flow-transverse foliations on its surface. Such foliations are common on VFF surfaces, but their relation to VFF-internal structures and ice flow is poorly understood. The VFF-internal structures we observe are reminiscent of up-glacier dipping shear structures that transport basal debris to glacier surfaces on Earth.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Subglacial environments on Mars are of astrobiological interest due to the availability of water ice and shelter from Mars&amp;#8217; surface radiation environment. However, current limitations in drilling technology prevent their direct exploration. If debris on VFF surfaces contains a component of englacial and/or subglacial debris, those materials could be sampled without access to the subsurface. This could reduce the potential cost and complexity of future missions that aim to explore englacial and subglacial environments on Mars.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methods: &lt;/strong&gt;We use a 1&amp;#160;m/pixel digital elevation model (DEM) derived from 25&amp;#160;cm/pixel High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) stereo-pair images, and a false-colour (merged IRB) HiRISE image. We measured the dip and strike of the VFF-internal structures using ArcGIS 10.7 and QGIS software. We also input the DEM (and an inferred glacier bed topography derived from it) into ice flow simulations using the Ice Sheet System Model, assuming no basal sliding and present-day mean annual surface temperature (210K).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Results and Discussion: &lt;/strong&gt;The VFF-internal structures dip up-glacier at ~20&amp;#176; from the bed. This is inconsistent with their formation by bed-parallel ice-accumulation layering without modification by ice flow. The VFF-internal structures and surface foliations are spectrally &amp;#8216;redder&amp;#8217; than adjacent VFF portions, which appear &amp;#8216;bluer&amp;#8217;. This could result from differences in debris concentration and/or surficial dust trapping between the internal structures and the bulk VFF. Modelling experiments suggest that the up-glacier-dipping structures occur at the onset of a compressional regime as ice flow slowed towards the VFF terminus.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;In cold-based glaciers on Earth, up-glacier-dipping folds are common approaching zones of enhanced ice rigidity near the glacier margin. Where multiple folds co-exist, the outermost typically comprises basal ice with a component of subglacial debris entrained in the presence of interfacial films of liquid water at sub-freezing temperatures. In polythermal glaciers, debris-rich up-glacier-dipping thrust faults form where sliding wet-based ice converges with cold-based ice.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions: &lt;/strong&gt;We propose that the observed up-glacier-dipping VFF-internal structures are englacial shear zones formed by compressional ice flow. They could represent transport pathways for englacial and subglacial material to the VFF surface. The majority of extant mid-latitude VFF on Mars are thought to have been perennially cold-based; thus we favour the hypothesis that the VFF-internal structures are folds formed under a cold-based thermal regime. Under this mechanism, the outermost surface foliation, and its corresponding VFF-internal structure, is the most likely to contain subglacial debris.&lt;/p&gt

Internal Structure of a Glacier on Mars Revealed by Gully Incision

International audienceDebris transport from / A Mars glacier bed to / Flowlines on surface