Historical Perspectives and Guidelines for Botulinum Neurotoxin Subtype Nomenclature

Botulinum neurotoxins are diverse proteins. They are currently represented by at least seven serotypes and more than 40 subtypes. New clostridial strains that produce novel neurotoxin variants are being identified with increasing frequency, which presents challenges when organizing the nomenclature surrounding these neurotoxins. Worldwide, researchers are faced with the possibility that toxins having identical sequences may be given different designations or novel toxins having unique sequences may be given the same designations on publication. In order to minimize these problems, an ad hoc committee consisting of over 20 researchers in the field of botulinum neurotoxin research was convened to discuss the clarification of the issues involved in botulinum neurotoxin nomenclature. This publication presents a historical overview of the issues and provides guidelines for botulinum neurotoxin subtype nomenclature in the future.Peer reviewe

Identification of Novel Linear Megaplasmids Carrying a ß-Lactamase Gene in Neurotoxigenic Clostridium butyricum Type E Strains

Since the first isolation of type E botulinum toxin-producing Clostridium butyricum from two infant botulism cases in Italy in 1984, this peculiar microorganism has been implicated in different forms of botulism worldwide. By applying particular pulsed-field gel electrophoresis run conditions, we were able to show for the first time that ten neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E strains originated from Italy and China have linear megaplasmids in their genomes. At least four different megaplasmid sizes were identified among the ten neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E strains. Each isolate displayed a single sized megaplasmid that was shown to possess a linear structure by ATP-dependent exonuclease digestion. Some of the neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E strains possessed additional smaller circular plasmids. In order to investigate the genetic content of the newly identified megaplasmids, selected gene probes were designed and used in Southern hybridization experiments. Our results revealed that the type E botulinum neurotoxin gene was chromosome-located in all neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E strains. Similar results were obtained with the 16S rRNA, the tetracycline tet(P) and the lincomycin resistance protein lmrB gene probes. A specific mobA gene probe only hybridized to the smaller plasmids of the Italian C. butyricum type E strains. Of note, a ß-lactamase gene probe hybridized to the megaplasmids of eight neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E strains, of which seven from clinical sources and the remaining one from a food implicated in foodborne botulism, whereas this ß-lactam antibiotic resistance gene was absent form the megaplasmids of the two soil strains examined. The widespread occurrence among C. butyricum type E strains associated to human disease of linear megaplasmids harboring an antibiotic resistance gene strongly suggests that the megaplasmids could have played an important role in the emergence of C. butyricum type E as a human pathogen

Animal Botulism Outcomes in the AniBioThreat Project

Botulism disease in both humans and animals is a worldwide concern. Botulinum neurotoxins produced by Clostridium botulinum and other Clostridium species are the most potent biological substances known and are responsible for flaccid paralysis leading to a high mortality rate. Clostridium botulinum and botulinum neurotoxins are considered potential weapons for bioterrorism and have been included in the Australia Group List of Biological Agents. In 2010 the European Commission (DG Justice, Freedom and Security) funded a 3-year project named AniBioThreat to improve the EU's capacity to counter animal bioterrorism threats. A detection portfolio with screening methods for botulism agents and incidents was needed to improve tracking and tracing of accidental and deliberate contamination of the feed and food chain with botulinum neurotoxins and other Clostridia. The complexity of this threat required acquiring new genetic information to better understand the diversity of these Clostridia and develop detection methods targeting both highly specific genetic markers of these Clostridia and the neurotoxins they are able to produce. Several European institutes participating in the AniBioThreat project collaborated on this program to achieve these objectives. Their scientific developments are discussed here

Impact of V2G/G2V technologies on distributed generation systems

The aim of this paper is to analyze the current status and implementation impact of V2G/G2V (Vehicle- to-Grid and Grid-to-Vehicle) technologies on Distributed Generation (DG) systems, illustrating requirements, benefits, challenges and strategies for interfaces of both individual vehicles and fleets. Two of the key aspects for the diffusion of these technologies are those related to batteries and charging systems. In this regards, activities of two research projects are described in the paper: the first project is about the behavior of commercial lithium-ion batteries and the second one concerns the implementation of a high power fast recharge statio

A case of infant botulism due to neurotoxigenic clostridium butyricum type E associated with clostridium difficile colitis

Reported here is the sixth case of intestinal toxemia botulism caused by Clostridium butyricum type E in Italy since 1984. In this case, the patient was concomitantly affected with colitis due to Clostridium difficile toxin. A review of previously reported cases revealed that some of these patients may also have had intestinal toxemia botulism associated with Clostridium difficile colitis, based on the reported symptoms. Given that this association has been shown to exist not only in Italy but also in the USA, it is recommended that individuals with intestinal botulism and symptoms of colitis undergo testing for Clostridium difficile and its toxins in fecal samples

Nutritional factors influencing plasma adiponectin levels: results from a randomised controlled study with whole-grain cereals

Data from intervention studies about the effects of a high intake of whole-grain cereals on adiponectin expression are still inconclusive. We evaluated the effects of whole-grain or refined cereals on fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin in people at high cardiovascular risk. According to a randomised controlled parallel group design, participants with metabolic syndrome were assigned to an isoenergetic diet based on either whole-grain cereal (WGC) or refined cereal (RC) products for 12-weeks. Anthropometric and biochemical measures were taken. Compared to baseline, fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin levels increased after both RC and WGC. In the WGC and RC groups combined, adiponectin concentrations significantly increased after 12-week intervention, and are directly associated with plasma SCFAs and acetate. Only increasing whole-grain cereals may not influence adiponectin levels, which could be modified by a fibre rich, low-fat, low-glycemic index diet, possibly through changes in gut microbiota, as suggested by the relation with SCFAs. Clinical Trials number: NCT00945854.Data from intervention studies about the effects of a high intake of whole-grain cereals on adiponectin expression are still inconclusive. We evaluated the effects of whole-grain or refined cereals on fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin in people at high cardiovascular risk. According to a randomised controlled parallel group design, participants with metabolic syndrome were assigned to an isoenergetic diet based on either whole-grain cereal (WGC) or refined cereal (RC) products for 12-weeks. Anthropometric and biochemical measures were taken. Compared to baseline, fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin levels increased after both RC and WGC. In the WGC and RC groups combined, adiponectin concentrations significantly increased after 12-week intervention, and are directly associated with plasma SCFAs and acetate. Only increasing whole-grain cereals may not influence adiponectin levels, which could be modified by a fibre rich, low-fat, low-glycemic index diet, possibly through changes in gut microbiota, as suggested by the relation with SCFAs. Clinical Trials number: NCT00945854

Nutritional factors influencing plasma adiponectin levels: results from a randomised controlled study with whole-grain cereals

Data from intervention studies about the effects of a high intake of whole-grain cereals on adiponectin expression are still inconclusive. We evaluated the effects of whole-grain or refined cereals on fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin in people at high cardiovascular risk. According to a randomised controlled parallel group design, participants with metabolic syndrome were assigned to an isoenergetic diet based on either whole-grain cereal (WGC) or refined cereal (RC) products for 12-weeks. Anthropometric and biochemical measures were taken. Compared to baseline, fasting and postprandial serum adiponectin levels increased after both RC and WGC. In the WGC and RC groups combined, adiponectin concentrations significantly increased after 12-week intervention, and are directly associated with plasma SCFAs and acetate. Only increasing whole-grain cereals may not influence adiponectin levels, which could be modified by a fibre rich, low-fat, low-glycemic index diet, possibly through changes in gut microbiota, as suggested by the relation with SCFAs. Clinical Trials number: NCT00945854