Understanding Gender Gaps in Student Achievement and STEM Majors: The Role of Student Effort, Test Structure, Self-Perceived Ability, and Parental Occupation

Increasing women’s participation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) has become a policy goal for many countries. This dissertation focuses on the origin and measurement of gender gaps in student achievement and self-perceived ability, as well as their potential role in predicting college career choices in STEM. The first two chapters provide an international overview of gender achievement gaps and focus on issues around measurement using data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). These chapters study the role of student effort in predicting gender gaps in achievement and whether or not test structure, defined as question difficulty order, could be a potential moderator of the relationship between student effort and measured gender achievement gaps. The effort measures of chapters 1 and 2 are based on students’ response time to test questions (i.e., rates-guessing rates in the test) and on the proportion of unanswered items (i.e., item non-response rates) from the post-test survey that students take during the PISA assessment. The findings emphasize the importance of accounting for differences in student effort to understand cross-country heterogeneity in performance and gender achievement gaps across and within nations. Although question difficulty order plays some role in shaping student effort, overall, the findings do not provide evidence that test structure could be a mechanism that explains the relationship between student effort and gender achievement gaps. Finally, the third chapter takes a further step in the analysis of gender achievement gaps by assessing how the interaction of gender gaps in math achievement, self-perceived math ability during childhood, and the parental occupation in STEM professions, could help explain the gender gaps in college majoring-decisions in STEM careers. Using longitudinal data from the U.S., the findings of this chapter suggest that all three factors are relevant predictors of majoring in science in college. However, the results indicate a loss in STEM enrollment by otherwise qualified young women. Concerning parental occupation, most of the positive effects of having a parent working in any STEM job seem to concentrate among females, which highlights the potential role that parental occupation could play in encouraging women\u27s college majoring-decisions in certain STEM fields. Altogether, these chapters advance the current state of knowledge in three ways. First, by evaluating the challenges in measuring observed gender achievement gaps, derived from gender differences in student effort. Second, by assessing whether or not question difficulty order has differential effects by gender. Third, by studying the potential drivers behind gender gaps in STEM college majors, including the role that parental occupation in some STEM fields, could play in motivating women\u27s participation in certain STEM careers

The role of student effort on performance in PISA: Revisiting the gender gap in achievement

International assessments are important to benchmark the quality of education across countries. However, on low-stakes tests, students’ incentives to invest their maximum effort may be minimal. Research stresses that ignoring students’ effort when interpreting results from low-stakes assessments can lead to biased interpretations of test performance across groups of examinees. We use data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a low-stakes test, to analyze the extent to which student effort helps to explain test scores heterogeneity across countries and by gender groups. Our results highlight the importance of accounting for differences in student effort to understand cross-country heterogeneity in performance and variations in gender achievement gaps across nations. We find that, once we account for differential student effort across gender groups, the estimated gender achievement gap in math and science could be up to 12 and 6 times wider, respectively, and up to 49 percent narrower in reading, in favor of boys. In math and science, the gap widens in most countries, even among some of the top 20 most gender-equal countries. Altogether, our effort measures on average explain between 36 and 40 percent of the cross-country variation in test scores

Gender Gaps in Math Performance, Perceived Mathematical Ability and College STEM Education: The Role of Parental Occupation

Employment opportunities in occupations related to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, the so-called STEM fields, are predicted to continue growing through time. In addition, STEM occupations also enjoy higher wages on average. Despite these advantages, women remain under-represented in STEM college degree completion and occupations. Encouraging women into the STEM fields has become an important policy concern. We use longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to study gender differences in math achievement and self-perceived math ability and how they may differ by parental occupation type, specifically science related versus non-science related parental occupations. We then study their role on subsequent decision of majoring in a science field in college. Our results corroborate significant gender differences in math test scores and perceived math ability during childhood. Having a parent working in a science related field is associated with a better performance in math but not necessarily higher levels of perceived math ability, given math performance. All three factors, math achievement, perceived math ability, and parental occupation in a science field, are found to be significant predictors of the probability of majoring in science in college. However, estimated effects of higher levels of math achievement are about double for boys than for girls. Estimates of perceived math ability are also slightly larger for boys. In contrast, most of the observed positive effects of having a parent in a science related occupation seem to be concentrated among females. These results suggest a loss in STEM enrollment by otherwise qualified young women and the potential importance that parental role modeling effects or specific human capital parental investments by parents in science occupations could have for encouraging women to major in science fields

Understanding Performance in Test Taking: The Role of Question Difficulty Order

Standardized assessments are widely used to determine access to educational resources with important consequences for later economic outcomes in life. However, many design features of the tests themselves may lead to psychological reactions influencing performance. In particular, the level of difficulty of the earlier questions in a test may affect performance in later questions. How should we order test questions according to their level of difficulty such that test performance offers an accurate assessment of the test taker\u27s aptitudes and knowledge? We conduct a field experiment with about 19,000 participants in collaboration with an online teaching platform where we randomly assign participants to different orders of difficulty and we find that ordering the questions from easiest to most difficult yields the lowest probability to abandon the test, as well as the highest number of correct answers. Consistent results are found exploiting the random variation of difficulty across test booklets in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a triannual international test, for the years of 2009, 2012, and 2015, providing additional external validity. We conclude that the order of the difficulty of the questions in tests should be considered carefully, in particular when comparing performance between test-takers who have faced different order of questions

Strengthening of spatial thinking and geometric system in first grade students of the Carlos Vicente Rey School of the municipality of Piedecuesta through a didactic sequence focused on visual skills

La investigación tiene como objetivo principal fortalecer el pensamiento espacial y sistema geométrico en los estudiantes del grado primero del colegio Carlos Vicente Rey del municipio de Piedecuesta a través de una unidad didáctica centrada en habilidades visuales. Para el desarrollo de la investigación fueron importantes los aportes del enfoque cualitativo, bajo las directrices de la Investigación Acción Participación, la cual es un tipo de investigación que se desarrolla en forma espiral introspectiva, es decir que fue necesario la aplicación minuciosa de cuatros pasos específicos, planeación, acción, observación y reflexión. Para el diseño de la unidad didáctica se requirió de la aplicación de una prueba diagnóstica con la finalidad de identificar el manejo de las siete habilidades visuales establecidas por Del Grande y sus niveles de desempeño para el fortalecimiento del pensamiento espacial y sistema geométrico. La unidad didáctica se diseñó en ocho secuencias estructuradas en cuatro momentos: exploración, estructuración, ejecución, evaluación, cuyo desarrollo fue orientado por el modelo Van Hiele y bajo los contenidos establecidos en los derechos básicos de Aprendizaje correspondientes al pensamiento espacial y sistemas geométricos. Los datos obtenidos se registraron a través del uso de los diarios de campo, donde se constató que los estudiantes aprenden significativamente cuando se aplican estrategias didácticas con contenidos que se valgan desde la abstracción, la motricidad, la colaboración, y el razonamiento, de forma que se contribuye no solo a mejor el pensamiento espacial y el sistema geométrico en los estudiantes sino también a mejorar el quehacer pedagógico del docente en el área del conocimiento matemático-geométrico.INTRODUCCIÓN 1 1. PROBLEMA DE INVESTIGACIÓN 4 1.1. Descripción de la Situación Problémica 4 1.2. Formulación del Problema 11 1.3. Objetivos de la Investigación 11 1.3.1. Objetivo General. 11 1.3.2. Objetivos Específicos. 12 1.4. Justificación 12 1.5. Contextualización de la Institución 17 2. MARCO REFERENCIAL 24 2.1. Antecedentes de la Investigación 24 2.1.1. Internacionales. 24 2.1.2. Nacionales. 28 2.1.3. Locales. 31 2.2. Marco Teórico 35 2.2.1. Conceptualización de la Didáctica como Estrategia Pedagógica para la Enseñanza de las Matemáticas. 35 2.2.2. Estrategias de Enseñanza Aprendizaje. 37 2.2.3. La Metodología: Rol del Docente en el área de las Matemáticas. 38 2.2.4. Modelo Van Hiele. 41 2.2.5. Habilidad Visual desde el Aprendizaje Cognitivo. 44 2.2.6. Aprendizaje Constructivista en la Enseñanza Aprendizaje de las Matemáticas. 45 2.2.7. Pensamiento Espacial y Sistema Geométrico. 47 2.2.8. Competencias Básicas de las Matemáticas. 51 2.3. MARCO CONCEPTUAL 51 2.3.1. Geometría. 51 2.3.2. Habilidades Visuales. 56 2.3.3. Secuencia Didáctica. 59 2.4. Marco Legal 60 3. DISEÑO METODOLÓGICO 63 3.1. Enfoque y Tipo De Investigación 63 3.2. Proceso de la Investigación 67 3.3. Población y Muestra 72 3.4. Técnicas e Instrumentos para la Recolección de la Información 72 3.5. Validación de los Instrumentos. 76 3.6. Categorización. 76 3.7. Resultados y Discusión 77 3.7.1. Análisis Evaluación Diagnóstica a Estudiante. 77 3.7.2. Análisis de Resultados por Categorías. 80 4. PROPUESTA PEDAGÓGICA 89 4.1. Presentación de la propuesta 89 4.2. Justificación 92 4.3. OBJETIVOS 94 4.4. Metodología 95 4.5. Logro a Desarrollar 96 4.6. Fundamentos Pedagógicos 100 4.7. Diseño de actividades: 102 5. CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES 121 REFERENCIAS 125 ANEXOS 132MaestríaThe main objective of the research is to strengthen the spatial thinking and geometrical system in the first grade students of the Carlos Vicente Rey school in the municipality of Piedecuesta through a didactic unit focused on visual skills. For the development of the research, the contributions of the qualitative approach were important, under the guidelines of the Participation Action Research, which is a type of research that takes place in an introspective spiral, that is, the detailed application of four specific steps was necessary, planning, action, observation and reflection. For the design of the didactic unit, the application of a diagnostic test was required in order to identify the management of the seven visual skills established by Del Grande and their performance levels for the strengthening of spatial thinking and geometric system. The didactic unit was designed in eight sequences structured in four moments: exploration, structuring, execution, evaluation, whose development was guided by the Van Hiele model and under the contents established in the basic rights of Learning corresponding to spatial thinking and geometric systems. The data obtained was recorded through the use of field journals, where it was found that students learn significantly when teaching strategies are applied with content that is based on abstraction, motor skills, collaboration, and reasoning, so that it contributes not only to better spatial thinking and the geometrical system in the students but also to improve the pedagogical task of the teacher in the area of mathematical-geometric knowledge

Contribución al restablecimiento de los derechos humanos de las victimas reclamantes en el proceso de restitución de tierras de la vereda La Secreta en el Municipio de Cienaga, Magdalena.

Las consecuencias del conflicto armado vivido en la vereda la secreta del municipio de Ciénaga, en el departamento del Magdalena, han sido consideradas por el Estado Colombiano como emblemáticas; los grupos armados ilegales estaban motivados principalmente por el dominio y propiedad de las tierras, así que para obtenerlas llevaron a cabo una serie de amenazas, homicidios, masacres, desplazamientos, entre otros, para obligar a muchas personas a abandonar sus inmuebles. Colombia ha implementado la Ley de Victimas y Restitución de Tierras (1448 de 2011) en la que se disponen una serie de medidas para atender y reparar las víctimas del conflicto a través de la verdad, justicia, reparación y no repetición; así lograr que las victimas superen el estado de macrovulneración de sus Derechos Humanos. Los resultados en Ciénaga hasta la fecha arrojan que de las 435 solicitudes de restitución de 24.131 hectáreas, solo se han logrado regresar 1069 hectáreas a 52 solicitantes, es decir que solo se ha restituido el 4.5% de las tierras reclamadas. La población victima que en la actualidad se encuentra reclamando la restitución de sus tierras han denunciado la falta de atención y medidas que permitan suplir sus necesidades, y exigen la pronta reparación de los daños y perjuicios recibidos, además los líderes de víctimas han sido constantemente amenazados en su labor. Es notoria la vulneración de los Derechos Humanos de las victimas reclamantes en los procesos de restitución de tierras de la vereda la Secreta; por lo que este proyecto busca, mediante la metodología de marco lógico, contribuir al restablecimiento de los Derechos Humanos de las Victimas reclamantes a través de capacitación en derechos humanos e incentivo de la articulación de las entidades del Sistema Nacional de Atención y Reparación de Victimas, la capacitación y empoderamiento de las victimas reclamantes de tierras acerca de sus derechos y los mecanismos para exigirlos, y además la visibilizacíon de los procesos de tierras que se están llevando a cabo para la vigilancia y construcción de la memoria histórica de la socieda

Condiciones de vida, violencia sexual y sintomatología psiquiátrica de mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado colombiano: estudio de corte transversal en Cartagena, Colombia

Objective: To evaluate the phenomenon of sexual violence and living conditions of Afro-Colombian women victims of the armed conflict, based in the city of Cartagena, Colombia. Materials and methods: Prospective cross-sectional study, population-based survey type, conducted between September 2019 and March 2020, in the city of Cartagena, Colombia. Sociodemographic variables, type of crimes suffered in the armed conflict and related factors were evaluated, as well as history or presence of psychiatric symptoms associated with traumatic events. Through descriptive analysis, the current living conditions of the participants were characterized and associations between the condition of sexual violence and psychiatric symptomatology were explored by means of Odds Ratio (OR). Results: 215 women participated, with a median age of 40 years and displaced mainly from the department of Bolívar (55%). 85% percent were housewives and only 60% hadtheir own house, with more than 65% of the total number of houses located in flood risk areas. 35% had suffered gender or racial discrimination or had been victims of sexual violence. Approximately half of the sample reported suffering from insomnia, anxiety, and depression. 40% mentioned having had suicidal thoughts and only 1 in 5 women received psychological support. Having been kidnapped (OR 4.71; 95% CI, 1.05-21.07), persecuted (OR 3.33; 95% CI, 1.61-6.89) and sexually abused (OR 3.09; 95% CI, 1.60-5.96), are events that were consistently and significantly associated with psychiatric symptomatology. Conclusion: The Afro-Colombian women victims of the Colombian armed conflict basedin Cartagena, present unstable living conditions, have not received adequate help from support networks, have been discriminated against because of their ethnicity, gender, and victim status, and have a high prevalence of psychiatric symptoms associated with the traumatic events experienced.Objetivo: Evaluar el fenómeno de violencia sexual y condición de vida de mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado, asentadas en la ciudad de Cartagena, Colombia. Materiales y métodos: Estudio prospectivo de corte transversal, tipo encuesta poblacional, realizado entre septiembre de 2019 y marzo del 2020, en la ciudad de Cartagena, Colombia. Se evaluaron variables sociodemográficas, tipo de delitos sufridos en el conflicto armado y factores relacionados, además de antecedentes o presencia de sintomatología psiquiátrica asociada a los eventos traumáticos. A través de análisis descriptivo, se caracterizó las condiciones de vida actuales de las participantes y se exploraron asociaciones entre la condición de violencia sexual y sintomatología psiquiátrica, por medio de Odds Ratio (OR). Resultados: Participaron 215 mujeres, con una mediana de edad de 40 años y desplazadas principalmente del departamento de Bolívar (55%). El 85% eran amas de casa y solo el 60% tiene vivienda propia, encontrándose más del 65% del total de las viviendas en zonas de riesgo por inundación. Por lo menos el 35% habían sufrido discriminación de género, racial o habían sido víctima de violencia sexual. Aproximadamente la mitad de la muestra declaró padecer insomnio, ansiedad y depresión. El 40% mencionó haber tenido pensamientos suicidas y solo 1 de cada 5 mujeres recibió apoyo psicológico. Haber sido secuestrada (OR 4,71; IC 95%, 1,05-21,07), perseguida (OR 3,33; IC 95%, 1,61-6,89) y abusada sexualmente (OR 3,09; IC 95%, 1,60-5,96), son hechos que se asociaron de forma sostenida y significativa con sintomatología psiquiátrica. Conclusión: Las mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado colombiano asentadas en Cartagena, presentan condiciones de vida inestables, no han recibido la ayuda adecuada de redes de apoyo, han sido discriminadas por su etnia, género y condición de víctima, y tienen una prevalencia elevada de sintomatología psiquiátrica asociada a los hechos traumáticos vividos

Condiciones de vida, violencia sexual y sintomatología psiquiátrica de mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado colombiano: estudio de corte transversal en Cartagena, Colombia

Objective: To evaluate the phenomenon of sexual violence and living conditions of Afro-Colombian women victims of the armed conflict, based in the city of Cartagena, Colombia. Materials and methods: Prospective cross-sectional study, population-based survey type, conducted between September 2019 and March 2020, in the city of Cartagena, Colombia. Sociodemographic variables, type of crimes suffered in the armed conflict and related factors were evaluated, as well as history or presence of psychiatric symptoms associated with traumatic events. Through descriptive analysis, the current living conditions of the participants were characterized and associations between the condition of sexual violence and psychiatric symptomatology were explored by means of Odds Ratio (OR). Results: 215 women participated, with a median age of 40 years and displaced mainly from the department of Bolívar (55%). 85% percent were housewives and only 60% hadtheir own house, with more than 65% of the total number of houses located in flood risk areas. 35% had suffered gender or racial discrimination or had been victims of sexual violence. Approximately half of the sample reported suffering from insomnia, anxiety, and depression. 40% mentioned having had suicidal thoughts and only 1 in 5 women received psychological support. Having been kidnapped (OR 4.71; 95% CI, 1.05-21.07), persecuted (OR 3.33; 95% CI, 1.61-6.89) and sexually abused (OR 3.09; 95% CI, 1.60-5.96), are events that were consistently and significantly associated with psychiatric symptomatology. Conclusion: The Afro-Colombian women victims of the Colombian armed conflict basedin Cartagena, present unstable living conditions, have not received adequate help from support networks, have been discriminated against because of their ethnicity, gender, and victim status, and have a high prevalence of psychiatric symptoms associated with the traumatic events experienced.Objetivo: Evaluar el fenómeno de violencia sexual y condición de vida de mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado, asentadas en la ciudad de Cartagena, Colombia. Materiales y métodos: Estudio prospectivo de corte transversal, tipo encuesta poblacional, realizado entre septiembre de 2019 y marzo del 2020, en la ciudad de Cartagena, Colombia. Se evaluaron variables sociodemográficas, tipo de delitos sufridos en el conflicto armado y factores relacionados, además de antecedentes o presencia de sintomatología psiquiátrica asociada a los eventos traumáticos. A través de análisis descriptivo, se caracterizó las condiciones de vida actuales de las participantes y se exploraron asociaciones entre la condición de violencia sexual y sintomatología psiquiátrica, por medio de Odds Ratio (OR). Resultados: Participaron 215 mujeres, con una mediana de edad de 40 años y desplazadas principalmente del departamento de Bolívar (55%). El 85% eran amas de casa y solo el 60% tiene vivienda propia, encontrándose más del 65% del total de las viviendas en zonas de riesgo por inundación. Por lo menos el 35% habían sufrido discriminación de género, racial o habían sido víctima de violencia sexual. Aproximadamente la mitad de la muestra declaró padecer insomnio, ansiedad y depresión. El 40% mencionó haber tenido pensamientos suicidas y solo 1 de cada 5 mujeres recibió apoyo psicológico. Haber sido secuestrada (OR 4,71; IC 95%, 1,05-21,07), perseguida (OR 3,33; IC 95%, 1,61-6,89) y abusada sexualmente (OR 3,09; IC 95%, 1,60-5,96), son hechos que se asociaron de forma sostenida y significativa con sintomatología psiquiátrica. Conclusión: Las mujeres afrocolombianas víctimas del conflicto armado colombiano asentadas en Cartagena, presentan condiciones de vida inestables, no han recibido la ayuda adecuada de redes de apoyo, han sido discriminadas por su etnia, género y condición de víctima, y tienen una prevalencia elevada de sintomatología psiquiátrica asociada a los hechos traumáticos vividos

Indicios de fibrogénesis en hígado esteatósico no alcohólico de pacientes con componentes del síndrome metabólico

Non-alcoholic steatosis is generally associated with benign prognosis, however it can progress to fibrosis; the behavior of genes that contribute to their progression to fibrosis are not fully understood yet. The objective of this study was to analize the first signs of fibrogenesis in non-alcoholic steatosis in obese versus non-obese patients. A prospective descriptive study included patients with non-alcoholic steatosis was performed. The patients were divided in two groups, obese and non-obese. Sociodemographic, anthropometric and the suffering of the components of metabolic syndrome information were obtained. Biochemical parameters and expression leves of theTNF-α, NF-kβ, CYP2E1, TGF-β, OPN, COL4α5 and HGF genes were determined by RT-PCR. Our results showed significant differences in the levels of expression of the CYP2E1 gene, the level of expression being higher in obese patients suffering from complete metabolic syndrome. Furthermore, in non-obese patients with steatosis and without components of the metabolic syndrome, TGF-β is activated as a participant in fibrogen pathways and in obese patients with complete metabolic syndrome, the significant expression level of CYP2E1 could indicate an alarm signal for possible progress of the illness. Special attention and monitoring of steatosis should be paid in obese patients.La esteatosis no alcohólica es asociada con pronóstico benigno. Sin embargo, puede progresar a fibrosis, aunque no se comprende completamente el comportamiento de los genes que contribuyen a esta progresión. El objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar los indicios tempranos de fibrogénesis en la esteatosis no alcohólica en pacientes obesos frente a no obesos. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo prospectivo que incluyó a pacientes con esteatosis no alcohólica. Estos fueron divididos en dos grupos: obesos y no obesos. Se obtuvo información sociodemográfica, antropométrica y de padecimientos de componentes del síndrome metabólico. Se determinaron parámetros bioquímicos y niveles de expresión de los genes TNF-α, NF-kβ, CYP2E1, TGF-β, OPN, COL4α5 y HGF por RT-PCR. Los resultados muestran diferencias significativas en los niveles de expresión del gen CYP2E1, siendo mayor en pacientes obesos que padecían síndrome metabólico completo. Además, en pacientes no obesos sin componentes del síndrome metabólico se activa TGF-β como participante de vías fibrogénicas, y en pacientes obesos con síndrome metabólico completo el nivel de expresión significativo de CYP2E1 podría indicar una señal de alarma por un posible progreso de la enfermedad. Debe prestarse especial atención y seguimiento de la esteatosis en pacientes obesos