Mass balance and area changes of glaciers in the Cordillera Real and Tres Cruces, Bolivia, between 2000 and 2016

Climate change has led to a significant shrinkage of glaciers in the Tropical Andes during the last decades. Recent multi-temporal quantifications of ice mass loss at mountain range to regional scale are missing. However, this is fundamental information for future water resource planning and glacier change projections. In this study, we measure temporally consistent glacier area changes and geodetic mass balances throughout the Bolivian Cordillera Real and Tres Cruces based on multi-sensor remote-sensing data. By analyzing multi-spectral satellite images and interferometric SAR data, a glacier recession of 81 ± 18 km2 (29%; 5.1 ± 1.1 km2 a−1), a geodetic mass balance of −403 ± 78 kg m−2 a−1 and a total ice mass loss of 1.8 ± 0.5 Gt is derived for 2000–2016. In the period 2013–2016, ice mass loss was 21% above the average rate. A retreat rate of 15 ± 5 km2 a−1 and a mass budget of −487 ± 349 kg m−2 a−1 are found in this more recent period. These higher change rates can be attributed to the strong El Niño event in 2015/16. The analyses of individual glacier changes and topographic variables confirmed the dependency of the mass budget and glacier recession on glacier aspect and median elevation

Ecosystem sentinels for climate change? Evidence of wetland cover changes over the last 30 years in the tropical Andes

While the impacts of climate change on individual species and communities have been well documented there is little evidence on climate-mediated changes for entire ecosystems. Pristine alpine environments can provide unique insights into natural, physical and ecological response to climate change yet broad scale and long-term studies on these potential ‘ecosystem sentinels’ are scarce. We addressed this issue by examining cover changes of 1689 high-elevation wetlands (temporarily or perennial water-saturated grounds) in the Bolivian Cordillera Real, a region that has experienced significant warming and glacier melting over the last 30 years. We combined high spatial resolution satellite images from PLEIADES with the long-term images archive from LANDSAT to 1) examine environmental factors (e.g., glacier cover, wetland and watershed size) that affected wetland cover changes, and 2) identify wetlands’ features that affect their vulnerability (using habitat drying as a proxy) in the face of climate change. Over the (1984–2011) period, our data showed an increasing trend in the mean wetland total area and number, mainly related to the appearance of wet grassland patches during the wetter years. Wetland cover also showed high inter-annual variability and their area for a given year was positively correlated to precipitation intensities in the three months prior to the image date. Also, round wetlands located in highly glacierized catchments were less prone to drying, while relatively small wetlands with irregularly shaped contours suffered the highest rates of drying over the last three decades. High Andean wetlands can therefore be considered as ecosystem sentinels for climate change, as they seem sensitive to glacier melting. Beyond the specific focus of this study, our work illustrates how satellite-based monitoring of ecosystem sentinels can help filling the lack of information on the ecological consequences of current and changing climate conditions, a common and crucial issue especially in less-develope

Reduced melt on debris-covered glaciers: investigations from Changri Nup Glacier, Nepal

International audienceApproximately 25 % of the glacierized area in the Everest region is covered by debris, yet the surface mass balance of debris-covered portions of these glaciers has not been measured directly. In this study, ground-based measurements of surface elevation and ice depth are combined with terrestrial photogrammetry, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and satellite elevation models to derive the surface mass balance of the debris-covered tongue of Changri Nup Glacier, located in the Everest region. Over the debris-covered tongue, the mean elevation change between 2011 and 2015 is −0.93 m year−1 or −0.84 m water equivalent per year (w.e. a−1). The mean emergence velocity over this region, estimated from the total ice flux through a cross section immediately above the debris-covered zone, is +0.37 m w.e. a−1. The debris-covered portion of the glacier thus has an area-averaged mass balance of −1.21 ± 0.2 m w.e. a−1 between 5240 and 5525 m above sea level (m a.s.l.). Surface mass balances observed on nearby debris-free glaciers suggest that the ablation is strongly reduced (by ca. 1.8 m w.e. a−1) by the debris cover. The insulating effect of the debris cover has a larger effect on total mass loss than the enhanced ice ablation due to supraglacial ponds and exposed ice cliffs. This finding contradicts earlier geodetic studies and should be considered for modelling the future evolution of debris-covered glaciers

Rapid decline of snow and ice in the tropical Andes – Impacts, uncertainties and challenges ahead

Glaciers in the tropical Andes have been retreating for the past several decades, leading to a temporary increase in dry season water supply downstream. Projected future glacier shrinkage, however, will lead to a long-term reduction in dry season river discharge from glacierized catchments. This glacier retreat is closely related to the observed increase in high-elevation, surface air temperature in the region. Future projections using a simple freezing level height- equilibrium-line altitude scaling approach suggest that glaciers in the inner tropics, such as Antizana in Ecuador, may be most vulnerable to future warming while glaciers in the more arid outer tropics, such as Zongo in Bolivia, may persist, albeit in a smaller size, throughout the 21st century regardless of emission scenario. Nonetheless many uncertainties persist, most notably problems with accurate snowfall measurements in the glacier accumulation zone, uncertainties in establishing accurate thickness measurements on glaciers, unknown future changes associated with local-scale circulation and cloud cover affecting glacier energy balance, the role of aerosols and in particular black carbon deposition on Andean glaciers, and the role of groundwater and aquifers interacting with glacier meltwater.The reduction in water supply for export-oriented agriculture, mining, hydropower production and human consumption are the most commonly discussed concerns associated with glacier retreat, but many other aspects including glacial hazards, tourism and recreation, and ecosystem integrity are also affected by glacier retreat. Social and political problems surrounding water allocation for subsistence farming have led to conflicts due to lack of adequate water governance. Local water management practices in many regions reflect cultural belief systems, perceptions and spiritual values and glacier retreat in some places is seen as a threat to these local livelihoods.Comprehensive adaptation strategies, if they are to be successful, therefore need to consider science, policy, culture and practice, and involve local populations. Planning needs to be based not only on future scenarios derived from physically-based numerical models, but must also consider societal needs, economic agendas, political conflicts, socioeconomic inequality and cultural values. This review elaborates on the need for adaptation as well as the challenges and constraints many adaptation projects are faced with, and lays out future directions where opportunities exist to develop successful, culturally acceptable and sustainable adaptation strategies

The full-scale avalanche test site, Lautaret, France

The Lautaret full-scale avalanche test site in the southern French Alps has been used by IRSTEA (Cemagref) Research Institute since 1973. Over the recent years two avalanche paths are used to release small to medium avalanches 3 or 4 times each winter. Avalanche flows are generally dense, whether wet or dry, sometimes with a powder part. Main path n°2 (track length 800 m) is dedicated to avalanche dynamics. Within the flow of the avalanche, flow height and vertical profiles of pressure and velocity are measured along a 3.5 m tripod. The snow volume released in the starting zone is quantified by a differential analysis of laser scanning measurements set before and after triggering. A high rate positioning of the avalanche along the track is determined from terrestrial oblique photogrammetry. Above the dense layer, the saltation layer and the powder part are characterized by particles and air fluxes measurements. In path n°1 smaller in size, medium-size avalanches (track length 500 m) make this track of particular interest for experiments on structures. A macroscopic sensor-structure is set nearly 150 m downhill from the starting zone, that is, in the area where avalanches generally reach their maximum velocity. It consists is a one square-meter plate supported by a 3.5 m high steel cantilever fixed in the ground, facing the avalanche. Impact pressures are reconstructed from the cantilever deformations, while avalanche velocity is measured from optical sensors. Seismic signals generated by avalanches of those 2 paths are recorded by a 3-axial broadband seismometer. Around those experimental devices dedicated to the understanding of avalanche physics, a national and international partnership has been developed from years to years, including INSA de Lyon, CNRS and Université Joseph Fourier (France), Aalto University (Finland), Nagoya University (Japan), Boku University (Austria), IGEMA (Bolivia), OGS (Italy)PublishedGrenoble, France3.8. Geofisica per l'ambienteope

ETUDE DU RETRAIT DES GLACIERS DEPUIS CINQUANTE ANS DANS LES BASSINS HYDROLOGIQUES ALIMENTANT EN EAU LA VILLE DE LA PAZ – BOLIVIE (16°S).

On the Cordillera Real of Bolivia, we have reconstructed the mass balance of 21 representative glaciers, by digital photogrammetry. The DEM's have been constructed from the aerial photographs of the IGM-Bolivia of 1956, 1963, 1975, 1983, 1997 and 2006, with a decimetric or metric accuracy.The analysis of the results of Zongo glacier shows that one third of the glacier surface (ablation zone) controls 80% of the annual surface mass balance. The Zongo glacier series constitute the longest and the most precise series of surface mass balance of the Tropical Andes.We have analyzed the cumulated masse balances of 21 glaciers since 1956, excluding the tendencies of these glaciers, the temporary variations of the cumulated mass balances evidence a common sign of climatic origin.We have shown that 88% of the variance of the cumulated mass balances can be explained by exposition and elevation. This correlation and the photogrammetric restitutions have allowed us to calculate the surface mass balance and the surface shrinkage of 376 glaciers between 1963 and 2006 (43% of loss of their volume and 48% of loss of their surface since 1975).In summary, our study evaluates the glaciers contribution to the water resources of La Paz city. In average, over the 1975-2006 period the glacier melting has contributed around 18% and 15% during the recent period 1997-2006 (12% in wet season and 27% in dry season). Finally, we have calculated the runoff expected in the case of a total glaciers disappearance (12% less a year, 9% less in wet season and 25% less in dry season).Sur la Cordillère Royale en Bolivie, nous avons reconstitué les bilans de masse de 21 glaciers représentatifs, par photogrammétrie numérique. Les MNT's ont été construit à partir des clichés aériens de l'IGM-Bolivie de 1956, 1963, 1975, 1983, 1997 et 2006, avec une précision décimétrique ou métrique.L'analyse des résultats sur le glacier du Zongo montre qu'un tiers de la surface du glacier (zone d'ablation) contrôle 80% du bilan de masse annuel. La série du Zongo constitue la série de bilan de masse glaciaire la plus longue et la plus précise des Andes tropicales.Nous avons analysé les bilans de masse des 21 glaciers depuis 1956, lorsqu'on s'affranchit des tendances de ces glaciers, les variations temporelles du bilan de masse montrent un signal commun d'origine climatique.Nous avons montré ainsi que 88% de la variance des bilans cumulés sont expliqués par l'exposition et l'altitude. Cette corrélation et les restitutions photogrammétriques ont permis de calculer les bilans de masse et la perte de surfaces de 376 glaciers au cours de la période 1963-2006 (43% de perte de leur volume et 48% de perte de leur surface depuis 1975).Enfin, notre étude évalue la contribution des glaciers au système d'alimentation en eau potable de la ville de La Paz. En moyenne sur la période 1975-2006, la fonte glaciaire a contribué à hauteur de 18% et 15% sur la période récente 1997-2006 (12% en saison humide et 27% en saison sèche). Nous avons enfin calculé les débits attendus en cas de disparition totale des glaciers (12% en moins à l'année, 9% en moins en saison humide et 25% en moins en saison sèche)

Evaluation of a terrestrial photogrammetry method for the study of high mountain dynamics. Quebrada del Medio rock glacier, Mendoza, Argentina

International audienceThis paper investigates the potential and limits of terrestrial photogrammetry for studying rock glacier dynamics, and more especifically its interannual surface changes. Using a rather simple digital photogrammetric workflow, the restitution of two 3D-models was done thanks to multi-correlation of more than 100 images acquired in summers 2013 and 2014 on an active rock glacier in the Argentinian Andes. The quality of the output datasets is evaluated by comparing to GPS data, collected on artificial targets (XYZ) and along tracks (Z). Based on this results, we can consider ± 0.24 m as the margin of error that has to be taken into account to assess the surface changes between the two DEMs. Vertical differences affecting the rock glacier front over the one- year time lapse can then be quantified and interpreted in terms of geomorphological processes

Glacier decline between 1963 and 2006 in the Cordillera Real, Bolivia

International audienceThe volume changes of 21 glaciers in the Cordillera Real have been determined between 1963 and 2006 using photogrammetric measurements. These data form the longest series of mass balances obtained with such accuracy in the tropical Andes. Our analysis reveals that temporal mass balance fluctuations are similar, revealing a common response to climate over the entire studied region. The mass of these glaciers has clearly been decreasing since 1975 without any significant acceleration of this trend over recent years. We have found a clear relationship between the average mass balance of these glaciers as a function of exposure and altitude. From this relationship, the ice volume loss of 376 glaciers has been assessed in this region. The results show that these glaciers lost 43% of their volume between 1963 and 2006, essentially over the 1975–2006 period and 48% of their surface area between 1975 and 2006

Glacier thickening and decay analysis from 50 years of glaciological observations performed on Glacier d'Argentière, Mont Blanc area, France

International audienceNumerous glaciological data have been obtained from measurements carried out on Glacier d'Argentière, Mont Blanc area, France, since the beginning of the 20th century. Moreover, data on annual mass balance, ice-flow velocity, thickness variation and length fluctuation have been obtained from yearly measurements performed since 1975. This dataset provides an excellent opportunity to analyze the relationships between surface mass balance and dynamic response over time periods during which net mass balance changed from positive to negative. Following a positive specific-net-balance period between 1960 and 1981, the ablation zone experienced a large increase in thickness and ice-flow velocities. Conversely, the highly negative specific-net-balance period since 1982 has led to strong thinning, deceleration and retreat of the tongue. The response of these observed dynamics to surface mass balance is analyzed from ice-flux calculations performed on three transverse cross-sections. Our results reveal that the ice fluxes are largely accommodated by ice-flow velocities. Velocity fluctuations are synchronous over the entire area studied. In the largest part of the glacier, no compressing/extending flow change has been observed over the last 30 years and thickness changes are solely driven by surface mass-balance changes. However, on the tongue of the glacier, thickness changes do not depend on surface mass balance but are mainly driven by changes in the longitudinal strain rate

Recent Ice Wastage on the Tasman Glacier Obtained from Geodetic Elevation Changes

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