Options for managing human threats to high seas biodiversity

Areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) constitute 61% of the world's oceans and are collectively managed by countries under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Growing concern regarding the deteriorating state of the oceans and ineffective management of ABNJ has resulted in negotiations to develop an international legally binding instrument (ILBI) for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction under UNCLOS. To inform these negotiations, we identified existing and emerging human activities and influences that affect ABNJ and evaluated management options available to mitigate the most pervasive, with highest potential for impact and probability of emergence. The highest-ranking activities and influences that affect ABNJ were fishing/hunting, maritime shipping, climate change and its associated effects, land-based pollution and mineral exploitation. Management options are diverse and available through a variety of actors, although their actions are not always effective. Area-based management tools (ABMTs), including marine protected areas (MPAs), were the only consistently effective option to mitigate impacts across high-ranked activities and influences. However, addressing land-based pollution will require national action to prevent this at its source, and MPAs offer only a partial solution for climate change. A new ABNJ ILBI could help unify management options and actors to conserve marine biodiversity and ensure sustainable use. Incorporating a mechanism to establish effective ABMTs into the ILBI will help deliver multiple objectives based on the ecosystem approach

Secure key distribution exploiting error rate criticality for radio frequency links.

We propose a method by which two radio frequency (RF) communication terminals exchange encryption keys or other data securely. This method draws on the approach developed for quantum key distribution (QKD) for detecting eavesdroppers but our method does not use any quantum properties at all. Instead, by exploiting the effects an eavesdropper has on channel stability, we explore a line-of-sight link radio in which data transfer rates are so high as to approach the Shannon limit. With very steep rises in bit error rate accompanying a small degradation of signal-to-noise limits for certain forward error correction codes, it becomes possible to infer the existence of an eavesdropper before they are able to obtain a complete key. We describe our method and analyse one possible implementation using low density parity check codes with quadrature phase shift keying modulation. The proposed technique is in principle far easier to implement than quantum-based approaches for RF and optical wireless links since the required hardware is readily available and the basic principles are well known and well understood. Finally, we show our method to have a higher key rate and spectral efficiency than those of QKD

3D Analysis of chromosome architecture: advantages and limitations with SEM

Three-dimensional mitotic plant chromosome architecture can be investigated with the highest resolution with scanning electron microscopy compared to other microscopic techniques at present. Specific chromatin staining techniques making use of simultaneous detection of back-scattered electrons and secondary electrons have provided conclusive information on the distribution of DNA and protein in barley chromosomes through mitosis. Applied to investigate the structural effects of different preparative procedures, these techniques were the groundwork for the ``dynamic matrix model{''} for chromosome condensation, which postulates an energy-dependent process of looping and bunching of chromatin coupled with attachment to a dynamic matrix of associated protein fibers. Data from SEM analysis shows basic higher order chromatin structures: chromomeres and matrix fibers. Visualization of nanogold-labeled phosphorylated histone H3 (ser10) with high resolution on chromomeres shows that functional modifications of chromatin can be located on structural elements in a 3D context. Copyright (C) 2005 S. Karger AG, Basel

Does mass drug administration for the integrated treatment of neglected tropical diseases really work? Assessing evidence for the control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths in Uganda

This paper was one of four papers commissioned to review the role of social sciences in NTD control by TDR, the Special Programme for Research and Training on Tropical Diseases, which is executed by WHO and co-sponsored by UNICEF, UNDP, the World Bank and WHO.This article has been made available through the Brunel Open Access Publishing Fund.Background: Less is known about mass drug administration [MDA] for neglected tropical diseases [NTDs] than is suggested by those so vigorously promoting expansion of the approach. This paper fills an important gap: it draws upon local level research to examine the roll out of treatment for two NTDs, schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths, in Uganda. Methods: Ethnographic research was undertaken over a period of four years between 2005-2009 in north-west and south-east Uganda. In addition to participant observation, survey data recording self-reported take-up of drugs for schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminths and, where relevant, lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis was collected from a random sample of at least 10% of households at study locations. Data recording the take-up of drugs in Ministry of Health registers for NTDs were analysed in the light of these ethnographic and social survey data. Results: The comparative analysis of the take-up of drugs among adults revealed that although most long term residents have been offered treatment at least once since 2004, the actual take up of drugs for schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths varies considerably from one district to another and often also within districts. The specific reasons why MDA succeeds in some locations and falters in others relates to local dynamics. Issues such as population movement across borders, changing food supply, relations between drug distributors and targeted groups, rumours and conspiracy theories about the 'real' purpose of treatment, subjective experiences of side effects from treatment, alternative understandings of affliction, responses to social control measures and historical experiences of public health control measures, can all make a huge difference. The paper highlights the need to adapt MDA to local circumstances. It also points to specific generalisable issues, notably with respect to health education, drug distribution and more effective use of existing public health legislation. Conclusion: While it has been an achievement to have offered free drugs to so many adults, current standard practices of monitoring, evaluation and delivery of MDA for NTDs are inconsistent and inadequate. Efforts to integrate programmes have exacerbated the difficulties. Improved assessment of what is really happening on the ground will be an essential step in achieving long-term overall reduction of the NTD burden for impoverished communities.This article is available through the Brunel Open Access Publishing Fund

Co-production of bio-oil and propylene through the hydrothermal liquefaction of polyhydroxybutyrate producing cyanobacteria

A polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) producing cyanobacteria was converted through hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) into propylene and a bio-oil suitable for advanced biofuel production. HTL of model compounds demonstrated that in contrast to proteins and carbohydrates, no synergistic effects were detected when converting PHB in the presence of algae. Subsequently, Synechocystis cf. salina, which had accumulated 7.5wt% PHB was converted via HTL (15% dry weight loading, 340°C). The reaction gave an overall propylene yield of 2.6%, higher than that obtained from the model compounds, in addition to a bio-oil with a low nitrogen content of 4.6%. No propylene was recovered from the alternative non-PHB producing cyanobacterial strains screened, suggesting that PHB is the source of propylene. PHB producing microorganisms could therefore be used as a feedstock for a biorefinery to produce polypropylene and advanced biofuels, with the level of propylene being proportional to the accumulated amount of PHB

Co-liquefaction of Macroalgae with Common Marine Plastic Pollutants

Macroalgal blooms are environmentally problematic and costly to remediate, but they also represent a vast untapped resource for the production of renewable chemicals and fuels. The responsible exploitation of such marine resources will become increasingly prominent in the transition away from the crude oil economy that currently dominates global productivity. However, crude oil-derived plastic pollution is now a ubiquitous presence in the marine environment, which hampers the effective conversion of marine feedstocks. If the full potential of macroalgae is to be realized, any large-scale industrial process will need to accommodate the presence of this plastic. This study, for the first time, aimed to assess the effect of several common marine plastic pollutants on the hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of four UK macroalgae species and determine the impact on the major HTL products and biocrude oil quality. Coliquefaction of polyethylene and polypropylene with L. digitata, U. lactuca, F. serratus, and S. muticum led to modest synergistic effects for plastic conversion. Under hydrothermal conditions, polyethylene underwent fragmentation to olefinic species, as well as oxidative depolymerization to form ketones. Modest synergistic effects on biocrude production were also observed for polypropylene, which depolymerized more readily in the presence of biomass to form gaseous propylene as well as oil-phase products. In both cases, the presence of plastics increased total biocrude carbon content, decreased nitrogen, and boosted higher heating value (HHV), constituting an overall improvement in biocrude fuel properties. Alternatively, nylon-6, typically originating from fisheries debris, depolymerized almost entirely under HTL conditions to form caprolactam, which partitioned mainly to the aqueous phase. While this is not favorable for biocrude production, the reclamation of marine nylon debris for hydrothermal processing to monomers may present a promising revenue stream in future biorefineries. The results demonstrate that plastic contaminants may well represent an opportunity, rather than a threat, to the successful development of an HTL macroalgal biorefinery

Assessing the Conversion of Various Nylon Polymers in the Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Macroalgae

Marine macroalgae offers a promising third generation feedstock for the production of fuels and chemicals, avoiding competition with conventional agriculture and potentially helping to improve eutrophication in seas and oceans. However, an increasing amount of plastic is distributed into the oceans, and as such contaminating macroalgal beds. One of the major plastic contaminants is nylon 6 derived from discarded fishing gear, though an increasing amount of alternative nylon polymers, derived from fabrics, are also observed. This study aimed to assess the effect of these nylon contaminants on the hydrothermal liquefaction of Fucus serratus. The hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of macroalgae was undertaken at 350 ◦C for 10 min, with a range of nylon polymers (nylon 6,nylon 6/6, nylon 12 and nylon 6/12), in the blend of 5, 20 and 50 wt.% nylon to biomass; 17 wt.% biocrude was achieved from a 50% blend of nylon 6 with F. serratus. In addition, nylon 6 completely broke down in the system producing the monomer caprolactam. The suitability of converting fishing gear was further demonstrated by conversion of actual fishing line (nylon 6) with the macroalgae, producing an array of products. The alternative nylon polymer blends were less reactive, with only 54% of the nylon 6/6 breaking down under the HTL conditions, forming cyclopentanone which distributed into the biocrude phase. Nylon 6/12 and nylon 12 were even less reactive, and only traces of the monomer cyclododecanone were observed in the biocrude phase. This study demonstrates that while nylon 6 derived from fishing gear can be effectively integrated into a macroalgal biorefinery, alternative nylon polymers from other sectors are too stable to be converted under these conditions and present a real challenge to a macroalgal biorefinery

Forefoot pathology in rheumatoid arthritis identified with ultrasound may not localise to areas of highest pressure: cohort observations at baseline and twelve months

BackgroundPlantar pressures are commonly used as clinical measures, especially to determine optimum foot orthotic design. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA) high plantar foot pressures have been linked to metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint radiological erosion scores. However, the sensitivity of foot pressure measurement to soft tissue pathology within the foot is unknown. The aim of this study was to observe plantar foot pressures and forefoot soft tissue pathology in patients who have RA.Methods A total of 114 patients with established RA (1987 ACR criteria) and 50 healthy volunteers were assessed at baseline. All RA participants returned for reassessment at twelve months. Interface foot-shoe plantar pressures were recorded using an F-Scan® system. The presence of forefoot soft tissue pathology was assessed using a DIASUS musculoskeletal ultrasound (US) system. Chi-square analyses and independent t-tests were used to determine statistical differences between baseline and twelve months. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to determine interrelationships between soft tissue pathology and foot pressures.ResultsAt baseline, RA patients had a significantly higher peak foot pressures compared to healthy participants and peak pressures were located in the medial aspect of the forefoot in both groups. In contrast, RA participants had US detectable soft tissue pathology in the lateral aspect of the forefoot. Analysis of person specific data suggests that there are considerable variations over time with more than half the RA cohort having unstable presence of US detectable forefoot soft tissue pathology. Findings also indicated that, over time, changes in US detectable soft tissue pathology are out of phase with changes in foot-shoe interface pressures both temporally and spatially.Conclusions We found that US detectable forefoot soft tissue pathology may be unrelated to peak forefoot pressures and suggest that patients with RA may biomechanically adapt to soft tissue forefoot pathology. In addition, we have observed that, in patients with RA, interface foot-shoe pressures and the presence of US detectable forefoot pathology may vary substantially over time. This has implications for clinical strategies that aim to offload peak plantar pressures

Assessing hydrothermal liquefaction for the production of bio-oil and enhanced metal recovery from microalgae cultivated on acid mine drainage

The hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of algal biomass is a promising route to viable second generation biofuels. In this investigation HTL was assessed for the valorisation of algae used in the remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD). Initially the HTL process was evaluated using Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) with additional metal sulphates to simulate metal remediation. Optimised conditions were then used to process a natural algal community (predominantly Chlamydomonas sp.) cultivated under two scenarios: high uptake and low uptake of metals from AMD. High metal concentrations appear to catalyse the conversion to bio-oil, and do not significantly affect the heteroatom content or higher heating value of the bio-oil produced. The associated metals were found to partition almost exclusively into the solid residue, favourable for potential metal recovery. High metal loadings also caused partitioning of phosphates from the aqueous phase to the solid phase, potentially compromising attempts to recycle process water as a growth supplement. HTL was therefore found to be a suitable method of processing algae used in AMD remediation, producing a crude oil suitable for upgrading into hydrocarbon fuels, an aqueous and gas stream suitable for supplementing the algal growth and the partitioning of most contaminant metals to the solid residue where they would be readily amenable for recovery and/or disposal