The Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) approved insecticides, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and bifenthrin, for the control of cocoa mirids (Hemiptera: Miridae): Implications for insecticide-resistance development in Distantiella theobroma (Dist.) and Sahlbergella

The Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) in 2001 initiated a national Cocoa Diseases and Pest Control (CODAPEC) programme (popularly known as mass-spraying programme) against the cocoa mirids (Hemiptera: Miridae), which are predominantly Distantiella theobroma (Dist.) and Sahlbergella singularis Hagl. The insecticides approved by COCOBOD for controlling the cocoa mirids under CODAPEC and for individual farmer applications are Confidor® (imidacloprid 200 g/l), Actara® (thiamethoxam 240 g/l) and Akate Master® (bifenthrin 27 g/l). Imidacloprid and thiamethoxam are both neonicotinoid insecticides with cross-resistance between them, while cross-resistance has been established between the neonicotinoids and bifenthrin, a pyrethroid insecticide. Using imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and bifenthrin singly or rotationally selects for genes that confer resistance to the approved insecticides. The detection of ɣ-BHC-resistant D. theobroma in Ghana after widespread use of the insecticide against mirids from the mid 1950s through early 1960s indicated the genetic ability of mirids to develop resistance to insecticides. The mass-spraying of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam or bifenthrin to control mirids is, therefore, increasing selection pressure on field populations of mirids, and escalating the risk of the mirids developing resistance to all three insecticides. Preventing resistance development in the cocoa mirids to the COCOBOD approved insecticides is crucial to avert resistance associated yield losses, reduce the risk of insecticide residues in cocoa beans and safeguards Ghana's foreign exchange earnings from cocoa. Measures for protecting imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and bifenthrin from mirid resistance development are recommended

Insecticide Use Practices in Cocoa Production in Four Regions in Ghana

Chemical control of insect pests of cocoa started in 1950, and insecticides from the various classes have been recommended and used by farmers since then. Presently, Imidacloprid (Confidor®), Bifenthrin (Akatemaster®) and Thiamethoxam (Actara®) are recommended by Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) for insect pest management. A survey was conducted in the Ashanti, Eastern, Volta and Western regions of Ghana using questionnaires and farm visits of 147 cocoa farmers’ fields to gather information on insecticide use practices by farmers. The survey showed that the farmers used mostly Imidacloprid and Bifenthrin insecticides and the frequency of application was more than that recommended by COCOBOD. Among the three recommended insecticides, 43% each of the farmers across the three regions used either Confidor® or Akatemaster® whilst the remaining 14% used Actara®. The number of years farmers had consistently used a particular insecticide ranged between 5 and 16 years. Whilst some cocoa farmers do not apply insecticides to their farms, others, however, do as many as 11 applications in a year. Most of the insecticides used are classified as class II under WHO Hazard category, and the farmers used very minimal protective clothing during pesticides application. The results of this study show that there is the need to intensify education on safe handling and use of pesticides to reduce pesticide abuse, especially by cocoa farmers, in order to sustain effective management of pests and protect farmers, consumers and the environment

Incipient bifenthrin-resistance in field populations of cocoa mirids, Distantiella theobroma (Dist.) and Sahlbergella singularis Hagl. (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Bifenthrin is one of the insecticides approved by the Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) for the control of cocoa mirids. Bifenthrin-resistance levels of D. theobroma and S. singularis collected from different locations in the Eastern Region (ER), Volta Region (VR) and Central Region (CR) were determined by calculating their resistance ratios (RRs). The highest RRs for S. singularis were recorded from New Tafo in the ER and Logba Alikpati in the VR, which displayed 6-fold and 6.2- fold bifenthrin-resistance, respectively. Populations of S. singularis from Pankese in the ER and Likpe in the VR also displayed 3.6-fold and 3.9-fold bifenthrin-resistance, respectively. The D. theobroma population that displayed the highest bifenthrin-resistance of 3.7-fold was from New Tafo. The results show incipient bifenthrin-resistance in field populations of D. theobroma and S. singularis, which requires the implementation of effective resistance management strategies to prevent full-blown resistance in the cocoa mirids

INSECTICIDE HANDLING IN COCOA PRODUCTION IN FOUR REGIONS IN GHANA

Management of insect pests of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) using insecticides began in 1950 and has since gone through various programmes with concomitant challenges and successes. Presently Imidacloprid (Confidor®), Bifenthrin (Akatemaster®) and Thiamethoxam (Actara®)are recommended by Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) for the management of insect pests. A survey was conducted in the Ashanti, Eastern, Volta and Western Regions of Ghana using questionnaires and farm visits of 147 cocoa farmers’ fields to gather information on the characteristics of the farmers and insecticide handling and use by respondents. The survey showed that males dominated cocoa farming (72.7%) and most of them aged between 50 and 60 years. About 44% have had basic education whilst 37.5% of them belonged to farmer based organizations. About 52.8% of the farmers own motorized mistblower but 47.2% of the farmers use knapsack in the absence of a mistblower. About 44.8% do their own spray application whereas 55.2% hire labour. About 60.9% of the population across the regions read the label on the insecticides before application. A few (31.6 %) of the respondents put on the full personal protective costume during insecticide application and 21.9% do not use any protection. There was a positive correlation between farmers’ membership of farmer-based organisation and the costume-wearing farmers in the Ashanti, Eastern and Volta Regions and it was significant in the Ashanti region. It isrecommended that training and monitoring programmes be organized for farmers on the need to handle pesticides properly for personal and environmental safety and consumer benefit.Keywords: Insecticides; pest management; cocoa farmers; safet

Agricultural innovation platforms in West Africa: How does strategic institutional entrepreneurship unfold in different value chain contexts?

Inspired by Innovation System theory, donors promote Innovation Platforms (IP) to enhance collaboration for development. However, the question arises whether this is the best approach to facilitate change. The article presents the experience of an action-research programme (2009-2013) on the value of IPs for creating institutional change for the benefit of smallholders, in various value chain contexts in West Africa. We analyse the cases from a dialectic perspective on institutional entrepreneurship. Results show: the open IP approach, with some clear principles and in-depth analysis of the antagonistic context, enabled the initiator-cum-facilitators to create a reasonably effective IP coalition that endorsed broker activities fit for the context. In a mature value chain, it was possible to mobilise incumbent actors, who perceived a mutual benefit in enhancing smallholder development. In the other cases, IPs were started at lower administrative levels, building discursive legitimacy and -appeal to mobilise smallholders and higher level authorities for institutional change. We note a researcher-initiated open IP approach is able to induce strategic action in-situ, but the approach has its limitation: In the time given, IPs could neither build a cooperative smallholder movement, nor interest private export companies to invest in smallholders; nor tackle misaligned political interests

Standard Protocol for Screening Conventional Insecticides at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana for Mired Control

Mirids, (Sachlbergella singularis Hagl, and Distantiella theobroma (Dist), are the most important insect pests of cocoa in West Africa and their current control relies primarily on conventional insecticides. Insecticides have, for over six decades, had very beneficial effects on cocoa cultivation in Ghana. The success of mired control operation depends on, among others, the type of insecticide, the equipment used to apply them and timing. Consumers worldwide detest pesticide contaminated food products. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG), therefore, routinely screens all insecticides submitted by manufacturers for mired control with all the aim of identifying environmentally friendlier compounds and to address consumer concerns about pesticide residues. This paper reports on the five stages that an insecticide passes through before it is recommended for use on cocoa in Ghana. The stages include a laboratory screening, a cage spray test, a small-scale, researches- managed field trial, a large-scale, researcher and farmer-managed field trial, as well as a trial for taint test and residue analysis. We hope the presentation will go a long way to allay the fears of consumers and environmentalists on the safety of chemical control of cocoa mirids in Ghana. Journal of the Ghana Science Association Vol. 9 (2) 2007: pp. 117-12

Exploring Opportunities for Enhancing Innovation in Agriculture: The Case of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Production in Ghana

An exploratory study was conducted to identify opportunities to enhance innovation in the cocoa sector in Ghana. The specific objectives were to identify the key stakeholders in the cocoa industry, and elicit farmers and other stakeholders‟ perceptions on cocoa production and marketing practices, as well as the inherent constraints and opportunities. The study involved literature review of published information and the use of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools such as focus group discussion, problem tree analysis, seasonal calendar, and ranking techniques to elicit information from the respondents and purchasing clerks in the Eastern and Western Regions of Ghana. The problem tree analysis indicated that low cocoa incomes were due to low cocoa yields which were in turn caused by high incidence of pest and diseases such as capsids/black pod/cocoa swollen shoot virus disease (CSSVD), declining soil fertility and use of unapproved planting materials. The seasonal calendar analysis indicated that most cocoa farmers were financially constrained, experience high labour availability and cost from May to July during which farm activities are high. Based on the study, researchers recommend that the Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD) intensifies its efforts in implementing the opportunities such as crop/livelihood diversification, provision of crop insurance against risk, etc. identified to enhance farmers‟ welfare and the development of the entire cocoa industry. Addressing these constraints requires collaboration among the various stakeholders in the sector, including the government, research and extension as well as smallholder farmers

Development of alien and invasive taxa lists for regulation of biological invasions in South Africa

Background: Lists are fundamental for guiding policy and management of biological invasions. The process of developing regulatory lists of alien and invasive taxa should be based on scientific evidence through an objective, transparent and consistent process. Objectives: In this study, we review the development of the lists for the alien and invasive species regulations in terms of section 97(1) of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (NEM:BA) (Act No. 10 of 2004). Method: Lists published in the National Government Gazette were compared and assessed for changes in the taxa listed and their status between 2009 and 2016. Minutes from expert workshops convened to inform the listing were reviewed. Relevant information such as the criteria for listing taxa was extracted from minutes of the workshops. Results: Three draft versions were produced and published in the Government Gazette for public comment before the final list was published in August 2014 and promulgated in October 2014. The list is to be reviewed regularly and additional species can be added, and the status of species can be changed as additional evidence of threat levels is available - and was even amended in May 2015. The various stakeholders involved in the listing process were academics, conservation experts, managers and the general public through an inclusive process which included participation workshops or through public comment. A scoring tool based on the likelihood of invasion versus the impact of invasion was recommended for evaluating the risk of a species, but was rarely used. A number of issues relating to conflicts and approaches for listing were faced during development of lists. Conclusion: We conclude with some recommendations for future refinements in the listing process, including improving transparency and participation as well as developing standardised approaches for listing

Looking at agricultural innovation platforms through an innovation champion lens. An analysis of three cases in West Africa

The concept of an innovation platform is increasingly used in interventions inspired by agricultural innovation systems thinking, as a way of bringing stakeholders from a sector together to enable transformative change. An essential role on such innovation platforms is thought to be that of the ‘innovation champion’, but this role has so far not been unravelled. In this paper, by applying insights from management science to analyse three innovation platforms in West Africa from the Convergence of Sciences – Strengthening Innovation Systems programme (CoS–SIS), different types of innovation champions are mapped. The authors conclude that making a distinction among different types of innovation champions can be useful in identifying members for innovation platforms, but that the specifics of agricultural innovation appear not to be adequately captured by roles attributed to existing categories of innovation champions. Further research is needed to ascertain whether other categories exist, and how different innovation champions interact over time on agricultural innovation platforms

Choice-making in facilitation of agricultural innovation platforms in different contexts in West Africa: experiences from Benin, Ghana and Mali

Platforms provide an increased capacity for learning and coordinated innovation. The value of platforms for innovation is widely recognized, but more understanding is needed of the choices made in facilitation, to enable platforms to perform effectively within varying value chain contexts. This paper applies a comparative case study analysis of four innovation platforms in West Africa that aim to create institutional change for the benefit of smallholders. Each institutional context (emerging or developing value chain, a well-established value chain with more or less distortion by politics and rent-seeking behaviour) constituted a specific type of constraint and required different facilitation choices. Comparison showed that it is imperative for facilitators to have a clear platform purpose and design criteria, and good situation and actor analyses, and to interactively design small platforms, fit to create institutional change in a given context. Platforms need actors with capacities relating to the issue at stake, but also communicative qualities. Then there are situational facilitation choices: local level platforms need more structuring of deliberation, data-gathering, networking, and advocacy than higher level platforms. However, what emerged as essential for all was delicate mediation and dynamic agenda-setting. This created trust, relationships, and momentum for mutually supportive team action and institutional change