Etude du paludisme dans les zones de faible transmission : vers la pre-élimination du paludisme à Djibouti

A eux seuls, le Nigeria, la République Démocratique du Congo, l'Ouganda, l'Ethiopie et la Tanzanie représentent 50% de la mortalité liée au paludisme et 47% du total des cas de paludisme. Cependant, la diminution du nombre de cas et l'augmentation des activités de lutte à l'échelle mondiale sont autant de bonnes nouvelles encourageantes qui font déclarer à l'OMS que le paludisme peut être contrôlé et plus tard éliminé. Les recommandations des experts de la lutte contre le paludisme à l'échelle mondiale recommandent de cibler les zones où l'élimination est possible, les zones de faible transmission, et de là progresser vers les zones plus impaludées. Cela impose une connaissance précise de la situation du paludisme dans la région concernée. Les ensembles géographiques régionaux où la transmission du paludisme connait une diminution sensible, comme la Corne d'Afrique, et ayant des frontières extrêmement poreuses aux mouvements de populations humaines donc aux pathogènes, sont donc à cibler en priorité. Cela nécessite une évaluation du niveau de transmission et du risque de résurgence potentiel, posé par l'importation de nouvelles souches, afin d'aboutir à une élimination durable. Dans ce contexte, la République de Djibouti, ayant montré une prévalence extrêmement faible au cours de ces dernières années, s'est lancée dans une tentative de pré-élimination du paludisme. L'objectif de notre étude a été d'observer l'évolution, sur une durée de onze années (1998-2009), du taux d'incidence de l'infection palustre, du niveau de transmission du paludisme, de la possibilité d'importation depuis les pays voisins et enfin, de la distribution des vecteurs de la maladie.Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Ethiopia and Tanzania represent 50% of malaria deaths and 47% of total malaria cases. However, the decrease in the number of cases and worldwide increased control activities were encouraging news which lead the WHO to declare that malaria can be controlled and eliminated later. The recommendations of experts in the worldwide fight against malaria recommend targeting areas where elimination is possible, areas of low transmission, and hence moving towards areas more affected by malaria. This requires a precise knowledge of the malaria situation in the region. Geographical regional assemblies where malaria transmission is experiencing a significant decrease, as the Horn of Africa, and having extremely porous frontiers to the movement of human populations, therefore pathogens, must be the priority target. Thus an assessment of the level of transmission and the risk of potential recurrence, posed by the importation of new strains, was indispensable in order to achieve sustainable elimination. In this context, the Republic of Djibouti, who showed extremely low prevalence in recent years, is embarked on an attempt to pre-eliminate malaria. The aim of our study was to observe changes, over a period of 11 years (1998-2009), in the level of malaria occurrence, malaria transmission, but also the level of its potential importation from neighboring countries and finally the vectors population dynamics. These results could serve as a basis of reflection, for the health authorities of the country or international partners, to a possible adjustment of the current policy of fight against malaria

The evolving SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Africa: Insights from rapidly expanding genomic surveillance.

Investment in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) sequencing in Africa over the past year has led to a major increase in the number of sequences that have been generated and used to track the pandemic on the continent, a number that now exceeds 100,000 genomes. Our results show an increase in the number of African countries that are able to sequence domestically and highlight that local sequencing enables faster turnaround times and more-regular routine surveillance. Despite limitations of low testing proportions, findings from this genomic surveillance study underscore the heterogeneous nature of the pandemic and illuminate the distinct dispersal dynamics of variants of concern-particularly Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron-on the continent. Sustained investment for diagnostics and genomic surveillance in Africa is needed as the virus continues to evolve while the continent faces many emerging and reemerging infectious disease threats. These investments are crucial for pandemic preparedness and response and will serve the health of the continent well into the 21st century

The evolving SARS-CoV-2 epidemic in Africa: Insights from rapidly expanding genomic surveillance

INTRODUCTION Investment in Africa over the past year with regard to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) sequencing has led to a massive increase in the number of sequences, which, to date, exceeds 100,000 sequences generated to track the pandemic on the continent. These sequences have profoundly affected how public health officials in Africa have navigated the COVID-19 pandemic. RATIONALE We demonstrate how the first 100,000 SARS-CoV-2 sequences from Africa have helped monitor the epidemic on the continent, how genomic surveillance expanded over the course of the pandemic, and how we adapted our sequencing methods to deal with an evolving virus. Finally, we also examine how viral lineages have spread across the continent in a phylogeographic framework to gain insights into the underlying temporal and spatial transmission dynamics for several variants of concern (VOCs). RESULTS Our results indicate that the number of countries in Africa that can sequence the virus within their own borders is growing and that this is coupled with a shorter turnaround time from the time of sampling to sequence submission. Ongoing evolution necessitated the continual updating of primer sets, and, as a result, eight primer sets were designed in tandem with viral evolution and used to ensure effective sequencing of the virus. The pandemic unfolded through multiple waves of infection that were each driven by distinct genetic lineages, with B.1-like ancestral strains associated with the first pandemic wave of infections in 2020. Successive waves on the continent were fueled by different VOCs, with Alpha and Beta cocirculating in distinct spatial patterns during the second wave and Delta and Omicron affecting the whole continent during the third and fourth waves, respectively. Phylogeographic reconstruction points toward distinct differences in viral importation and exportation patterns associated with the Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron variants and subvariants, when considering both Africa versus the rest of the world and viral dissemination within the continent. Our epidemiological and phylogenetic inferences therefore underscore the heterogeneous nature of the pandemic on the continent and highlight key insights and challenges, for instance, recognizing the limitations of low testing proportions. We also highlight the early warning capacity that genomic surveillance in Africa has had for the rest of the world with the detection of new lineages and variants, the most recent being the characterization of various Omicron subvariants. CONCLUSION Sustained investment for diagnostics and genomic surveillance in Africa is needed as the virus continues to evolve. This is important not only to help combat SARS-CoV-2 on the continent but also because it can be used as a platform to help address the many emerging and reemerging infectious disease threats in Africa. In particular, capacity building for local sequencing within countries or within the continent should be prioritized because this is generally associated with shorter turnaround times, providing the most benefit to local public health authorities tasked with pandemic response and mitigation and allowing for the fastest reaction to localized outbreaks. These investments are crucial for pandemic preparedness and response and will serve the health of the continent well into the 21st century

<it>Plasmodium vivax</it> and <it>Plasmodium falciparum</it> infections in the Republic of Djibouti: evaluation of their prevalence and potential determinants

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Formerly known as a hypoendemic malaria country, the Republic of Djibouti declared the goal of pre-eliminating malaria in 2006. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of <it>Plasmodium falciparum</it>, <it>Plasmodium vivax</it> and mixed infections in the Djiboutian population by using serological tools and to identify potential determinants of the disease and hotspots of malaria transmission within the country.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The prevalence of <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> and <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it> within the districts of the capital city and the rest of the Republic of Djibouti were assessed using 13 and 2 serological markers, respectively. The relationship between the immune humeral response to <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> and <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it> and variables such as age, gender, wealth status, urbanism, educational level, distance to rivers/lakes, living area, having fever in the last month, and staying in a malaria-endemic country more than one year was estimated and analysed by questionnaires administered to 1910 Djiboutians. Multivariate ordinal logistic regression models of the immune humeral response were obtained for <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> and <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it>.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> and <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it> seroprevalence rates were 31.5%, CI95% [29.4-33.7] and 17.5%, CI95% [15.8-19.3], respectively. Protective effects against <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> and <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it> were female gender, educational level, and never having visited a malaria-endemic area for more than one year. For <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> only, a protective effect was observed for not having a fever in the last month, living more than 1.5 km away from lakes and rivers, and younger ages.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>This is the first study that assessed the seroprevalence of <it>P</it>. <it>vivax</it> in the Republic of Djibouti. It is necessary to improve knowledge of this pathogen in order to create an effective elimination programme. As supported by recent observations on the subject, the Republic of Djibouti has probably demonstrated a real decrease in the transmission of <it>P</it>. <it>falciparum</it> in the past seven years, which should encourage authorities to improve efforts toward elimination.</p

Correction: Molecular investigation of malaria-infected patients in Djibouti city (2018–2021)

International audienc

Molecular investigation of malaria-infected patients in Djibouti city (2018–2021)

Abstract Background The Republic of Djibouti is a malaria endemic country that was in pre-elimination phase in 2006–2012. From 2013, however, malaria has re-emerged in the country, and its prevalence has been increasing every year. Given the co-circulation of several infectious agents in the country, the assessment of malaria infection based on microscopy or histidine-rich protein 2 (HRP2)-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) has shown its limitations. This study, therefore, aimed to assess the prevalence of malaria among febrile patients in Djibouti city using more robust molecular tools. Methods All suspected malaria cases reported to be microscopy-positive were randomly sampled (n = 1113) and included in four health structures in Djibouti city over a 4-year period (2018–2021), mainly during the malaria transmission season (January–May). Socio-demographic information was collected, and RDT was performed in most of the included patients. The diagnosis was confirmed by species-specific nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Data were analysed using Fisher’s exact test and kappa statistics. Results In total, 1113 patients with suspected malaria and available blood samples were included. PCR confirmed that 788/1113 (70.8%) were positive for malaria. Among PCR-positive samples, 656 (83.2%) were due to Plasmodium falciparum, 88 (11.2%) Plasmodium vivax, and 44 (5.6%) P. falciparum/P. vivax mixed infections. In 2020, P. falciparum infections were confirmed by PCR in 50% (144/288) of negative RDTs. After the change of RDT in 2021, this percentage decreased to 17%. False negative RDT results were found more frequently (P < 0.05) in four districts of Djibouti city (Balbala, Quartier 7, Quartier 6, and Arhiba). Malaria occurred less frequently in regular bed net users than in non-users (odds ratio [OR]: 0.62, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.42–0.92). Conclusions The present study confirmed the high prevalence of falciparum malaria and, to a lesser extent, vivax malaria. Nevertheless, 29% of suspected malaria cases were misdiagnosed by microscopy and/or RDT. There is a need to strengthen the capacity for diagnosis by microscopy and to evaluate the possible role of P. falciparum hrp2 gene deletion, which leads to false negative cases of P. falciparum

Assessment of the Performance of Lactate Dehydrogenase-Based Rapid Diagnostic Test for Malaria in Djibouti in 2022–2023

International audienceUntil 2020, Djiboutian health authorities relied on histidine-rich protein-2 (HRP2)-based rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) to establish the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum. The rapid spread of P. falciparum histidine-rich protein-2 and -3 (pfhrp2/3) gene-deleted parasite strains in Djibouti has led the authorities to switch from HRP2-based RDTs to lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)-based RDTs targeting the plasmodial lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) specific for P. falciparum and P. vivax (RapiGEN BIOCREDIT Malaria Ag Pf/Pv pLDH/pLDH) in 2021. This study was conducted with the primary objective of evaluating the diagnostic performance of this alternative RDT. Operational constraints related, in particular, to the implementation of this RDT during the COVID-19 pandemic were also considered. The performance of BIOCREDIT Malaria Ag Pf/Pv (pLDH/pLDH) RDT was also compared to our previously published data on the performance of two HRP2-based RDTs deployed in Djibouti in 2018–2020. The diagnosis of 350 febrile patients with suspected malaria in Djibouti city was established using two batches of RapiGEN BIOCREDIT Malaria Ag Pf/Pv (pLDH/pLDH) RDT over a two-year period (2022 and 2023) and confirmed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The sensitivity and specificity for the detection of P. falciparum were 88.2% and 100%, respectively. For P. vivax, the sensitivity was 86.7% and the specificity was 100%. Re-training and closer supervision of the technicians between 2022 and 2023 have led to an increased sensitivity to detect P. falciparum (69.8% in 2022 versus 88.2% in 2023; p < 0.01). The receiver operating characteristic curve analysis highlighted a better performance in the diagnosis of P. falciparum with pLDH-based RDTs compared with previous HRP2-based RDTs. In Djibouti, where pfhrp2-deleted strains are rapidly gaining ground, LDH-based RDTs seem to be more suitable for diagnosing P. falciparum than HRP2-based RDTs. Awareness-raising and training for technical staff have also been beneficial

Role of Anopheles stephensi Mosquitoes in Malaria Outbreak, Djibouti, 2019

International audienceAnopheles stephensi mosquitoes share urban breeding sites with Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in the Republic of Djibouti. We present evidence that A. stephensi mosquitoes might be responsible for an increase in malaria incidence in this country. We also document resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to dihydroartemisinin/piperaquin